Posts Tagged ‘Vikings’

The viking’s defiant bride

The Viking’s Defiant Bride 

By Joanna Fulford

Publisher: Harlequin, February 1, 2009

ISBN:9780373295340

Northumbria, 867 A.D.

Beautiful and courageous, the Lady Elgiva is as great a prize as the land the Viking conqueror now controls. Earl Wulfrum has taken her home, and now he will take her – as his unwilling bride. Wulfrum is a legendary warrior, but the strong-willed Elgiva proves the greatest challenge he has ever faced. Yet her response to his touch tells him she feels the all-consuming heat as much as he. Their passionate battle can end only one way – in the marriage bed!

Click here to read about the author

Click here to read a review of The Viking’s Defiant Bride by The Romance Reader

26 Feb 2010
Tags: , ,
Posted in Fiction | Comments Off

The Vikings in the East : a Survey of Settlement, Trade and Military Activity c.700 – 1100

The Vikings in the East : a Survey of Settlement, Trade and Military Activity c.700 – 1100

By D.A.F.  Adams

MA Thesis, University of Canterbury, 1988

Abstract: This thesis surveys three principal Scandinavian activities during the period from 700 to 1100 – those of settlement, trade and military activity – in the regions east of the Baltic Sea. As secondary sources debate the origin and ethnicity of the people known as the Rus mentioned by the primary literary sources and identified with Swedish Vikings, the philological arguments for the derivation of the name and the source material supporting the Scandinavian identity of the Rus are initially discussed.

In examining colonising activities, much attention has been paid to the archaeological evidence (supported by literary sources) indicating Scandinavian settlement in the region of North Russia. This is essentially an examination of burial sites and Norse burial practices and rituals. The tradition of the foundation of the first Russian State by Varangian warriors centred initially at Novgorod and shifting to Kiev in the ninth century is also discussed. The development of commerce from the pre-Viking period deals with trade-routes, wares and modes of travel. There is a division along the lines of trade with the Muslims and that with the Byzantines. To some extent, this is divided by the source material, numismatic evidence for Muslim commerce and literary for trade with the Byzantines.

My final chapter examines the Norse warrior tradition, their weapons and tactics. A discussion of the great raids on Constantinople and in the Caspian region based primarily on the written accounts of Byzantine and Muslim authors forms the basis of the last chapter. A brief account of the development of the Varangian Guard and some of the personalities associated with it completes that chapter. My overall conclusions then follow.

Click here to read/download this article (PDF file)

24 Feb 2010
Tags: , , , , , ,
Posted in Articles | Comments Off

Pont-de-l’Arche or Pitres? A location and archaeomagnetic dating for Charles the Bald’s fortifications on the Seine

Pont-de-l’Arche or Pitres? A location and archaeomagnetic dating for Charles the Bald’s fortifications on the Seine

By Brian Dearden and Anthony Clark

Antiquity, Vol. 64 (1990)

Introduction: Charles the Bald (grandson of Charlemagne) ruled the West Franks from AD 843 to 877. During these years his kingdom took the brunt of the Danish Viking attacks, mainly concentrated on the Seine and Loire rivers, with Paris and Orleans as principal targets. Despite military successes by the Franks, the raids continued until the tactic was evolved of blocking the rivers by the use of fortifications. In 862 the defence of the Seine was undertaken over a number of years at a site near to Pitres. In 866 the Vikings left the Seine. The Loire was blocked a few years later by fortifications at Ponts-de-Ck, near Angers.

Documentary evidence for these river defences begins with the statement made in 862: Charles. . . made all the leaders of his kingdom meet at a place which is called Pistis [Pitres]. where on the one side the Andelle and 0n the other side the Eure flow together into the Seine. They came about the beginning of June with many workers and carts, constructing fortifications on the Seine blocking off the entry of ships going up or down the river on account of the Northmen.

Click here to read/download this article (PDF file)

15 Feb 2010
Tags: , , , ,
Posted in Articles | Comments Off

Saga and East Scandinavia: Preprint papers of The 14th International Saga Conference

Saga and East Scandinavia: Preprint papers of The 14th International Saga Conference

Edited by Agneta Ney, Henrik Williams and Fredrik Charpentier Ljungqvist

Gävle: Gävle University Press, 2009

In August 2009, Uppsala University hosted the 14th International Saga Conference. Papers from the conference have now been made available online and can be downloaded as PDF files in two parts:

Part 1 – pages 1 to 550

Part 2 – pages 551 to 1081

Here is a list of English-language papers which have been published in full in this volume:

Part 1

Karelia, Finland and Austrvegr, by Sirpa Aalto and Ville Laakso

Dancing Images from Medieval Iceland, by Aðalheiður Guðmundsdóttir

Outlaws, women and violence. In the social margins of saga literature, by Joonas Ahola

The Formation of the Kings’ Sagas, by Theodore M. Andersson

Why be afraid? On the practical uses of legends, by Ármann Jakobsson

Writing origins: the development of communal identity in some Old Norse foundation-myths and their analogues in Guta saga, by Robert Avis

Individuality and Iconography: Jakob Sigurðsson’s Renderings of Codex Upsaliensis f.26v, by Patricia A. Baer

St. Óláfr and his Enemies in the Saga Tradition, by Sverre Bagge

“Gofuct dýr ec heiti”: Deer Symbolism in Sigurðr Fáfnisbani?, by Massimiliano Bampi

Muslims in Karlamagnúss saga and Elíss saga ok Rósamundar, by Bjørn Bandlien

Byzantium in the riddarasögur, by Geraldine Barnes

The World West of Iceland in Medieval Icelandic Oral Tradition, by Eleanor Rosamund Barraclough

What do the norns actually do?, by Karen Bek-Pedersen

Ásmund á austrvega: The Faroese Oral Tradition on Ásmund and its Relation to the Icelandic Saga, by Chiara Benati

The ‘Other’ and the Noble Heathen: Ambiguous Representations of Grettir and Finnbogi, by Lisa Bennett

The Good, the Bad and the Devil! On rewriting a Religious Motif in some Virgin Martyr Legends, by Kjersti Bruvoll

Negotiations of Space and Gender in Brennu-Njáls Saga, by Katrina Burge

The Secret Lives of Lawspeakers: the portrayal of lögsögumenn in the Íslendingasögur, by Hannah Burrows

Vatnsdoela saga and Onomastics: the case of Ingimundr Þorsteinsson, by Jörg Büschgens

Sagas and Archaeology in the Mosfell Valley, Iceland, by Jesse L. Byock

An Icelandic Genesis, by Betsie A.M. Cleworth

Poets and Ethnicity, by Margaret Clunies Ross

Passing Time and the Past in Grettis Saga Ásmundarsonar, by Jamie Cochrane

Editing the Fornaldarsögur Norðurlanda, by Matthew J. Driscoll

Anatomies off the Map: “Secret and distant freaks” and the Authorization of Identity in Medieval Icelandic and Irish Literature, by Amy Eichhorn-Mulligan

Which came first – the smith or the shaman? Volundarkviða, craftspeople and central place complexes, by Leif Einarson

Love affairs versus Social Status: A Theme in Kormáks saga?, by Elín Bára Magnúsdóttir

The ethical map of the Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar, by Alexey Eremenko

Reception and function of stories about the East, by Stefka G. Eriksen

From saga to Chronicle: Motif Migration inside Medieval Scandinavia, by Fulvio Ferrari

Narrative Trajectories between Nodal Points in the Cultural Landscape – The Eriksgata of King Ingjald, by Svante Fischer

Snorri Sturluson and oral traditions, by Frog

The Good, the Bad and the Undead: New Thoughts on the Ambivalence of Old Norse Sorcery, by Leszek Gardeła

Sensory deceptions. Concepts of mediality in the Prose Edda, by Jürg Glauser

On the Reception of Eastern Europe in Pre-Literate Iceland, by Galina Glazyrina

Saintly Exile: the commemoration of King Óláfr inn helgi in the poetry of Heimskringla, by Erin Goeres

Recreating Tradition: Sigvatr Þórðarson’s Víkingarvísur and Óttarr svarti’s Hofuðlausn, by Jonathan Grove

Alternative criteria for the dating of the sagas of Icelanders, by Guðrún Nordal

Ansgar’s Conversion of Iceland, by Terry Gunnell

Egill Skalla-Grímssonr on the Library Site in Trondheim?, by Jan Ragnar Hagland

More inroads to pre-Christian notions, after all? The potential of late evidence, by Eldar Heide

A Short Report from the Project on Codex Upsaliensis of Snorra Edda, by Heimir Pálsson

Law recital according to Old Icelandic law: Written evidence of oral transmission?, by Helgi Skúli Kjartansson

Hjarta sjónir. Ekphrasis and medium in Líknarbraut, by Kate Heslop

The Herjólfr Legend from Härjedalen and Its Resemblances to the Stories of Landnámabók, by Olof Holm

Sörla saga sterka and Rafn’s edition, by Silvia Hufnagel

Odin – an immigrant in Scandinavia?, by Anders Hultgård

The Gosforth Fishing-Stone and Hymiskviða: An Example of Inter-Communicability between the Old English and Old Norse Speakers, by Tsukusu Itó

Aldeigjuborg of the sagas in the light of archaeological data, by Tatjana N. Jackson

The Sea-Kings of Litla Skálda, by Judith Jesch

Royal Women and the Friðgerðarsaga Episode, by Jóhanna Katrín Friðriksdóttir

Biörner’s edition of the Friðþjófs saga ins froekna, by Vera Johanterwage

Where Old West and Old East Norse literature meet. A project outline, by Regina Jucknies

Sweden of the Sagas, by Kári Gíslason

Sweden and the Swedes in English language surveys of the Viking period, by John Kennedy

Celtic and Continental handicraft traditions; Template use on Gotlandic Picture Stones analysed by 3D-scanning, by Laila Kitzler Åhfeldt

When small words make a big difference: On adaptation and transmission of texts in Late Medieval
manuscripts, by Elise Kleivane

Rune stones and Saga, by Lydia Klos

Sverris saga in Uppsala De la Gardie 3, by James E. Knirk

When was the Battle of Helgeå?, by Annette Kruhøffer

Frithjof and Röde Orm: Two Swedish Viking impersonations, by Hans Kuhn

Part 2

Mirrors of the Self – Deconstructing Bipolarity in the Late Icelandic Romances, by Hendrik Lambertus

Troll and Ethnicity in Egils saga, by Paul S. Langeslag

Stjúpmoeðrasögur and Sigurðr’s Daughters, by Carolyne Larrington

Scribal Presence in Eggertsbók and Modern Editorial Attitudes, by Emily Lethbridge

Gendered memory – Rune stones, early Christian grave monuments and the Sagas, by Cecilia Ljung

The Gutnic runkalender and the ancient system of time calculus, by Maria Cristina Lombardi

Óðinn’s Role as a Guarantor of Law and Order in Norse Texts, by Lorenzo Lozzi Gallo

Royal Descent from Odin, by Emily Lyle

“Archaic” Assonance in the Strophes of Ragnarr Loðbróks Family and Other Early Skalds, by Mikael Males

The kauphús of Peter the Apostle in leiðarvísir: A Market or a Scribal Error?, by Tommaso Marani

Kenn mér réttan veg til þess kastala er Artús konungr sitr í: References to Kingship in the Old French Conte du Graal and its Old Norse and Middle English Adaptations, by Suzanne Marti

The Valtari story in Þidriks Saga af Bern: sources and parallels, by Inna Matyushina

Overcoming Óðinn: the Conversion Episode in Njáls saga, by Bernadine McCreesh

Alu and hale II: ‘May Thor bless’, by Bernard Mees

Óláfr soenski and his skalds in Old Norse tradition, by Jakub Morawiec

Time-reckoning, ritual time and the symbolism of numbers in Adam of Bremen’s account of the great sacrifice in Old Uppsala, by Andreas Nordberg

Imagining the Kalmar union: Nordic politics as viewed from a late 15th-century Icelandic manuscript, by Hans Jacob Orning

Runic Literacy and Viking-age Orality, by Rune Palm

West Slavic toponyms in Knýtlinga saga: orthographic adaptations or orthographic mistakes?, by Aleksandra Petrulevich

The East as a Model for the West: Translation Method and Aims in Alexanders saga, by Jonatan Pettersson

Hair Loss, the Tonsure, and Masculinity in Medieval Iceland, by Carl Phelpstead

The Thidrekssaga and the birth of the first Russian state, by Alessio Piccinini

Suffering a sea-change: poetic justice in Egill’s Sonatorrek, by Debbie Potts

Betrothal and betrayal: the eddic tradition’s treatment of Sigurðr, by Judy Quinn

Grettir the Deep: Traditional Referentiality and Characterisation in the Íslendingasögur, by Slavica Ranković

The women and Óðinn, by Margareta Regebro

A Hagiographical Reading of Egils saga, by Philip Roughton

Coming to Grips with the Beast, by Carrie Roy

Brenna at UpsÄlum: the Denial of Cosmos., by Giovanna Salvucci

The “Wild East” in Late Medieval Icelandic Romances – Just a Prop(p)?, by Werner Schäfke

Man as the Measure of All Things: The Relationship Between Mankind and the Gods in Eddic Wisdom Poetry, by Brittany Schorn

Germanic alliteration and oral theory, by Michael Schulte

Saga Accounts of Violence-motivated Far-travel, by John Shafer

Per sortes ac per equum. Lot-casting and hippomancy in the North after saga narratives and medieval chronicles, by Leszek P. Słupecki

Fornaldarsögur and the concept of literacy, by Terje Spurkland

Aspects of editing skaldic verse: The case of Hávarðar saga Ísfirðings, by Rolf Stavnem

Sigurðr Fáfnisbani as commemorative motif, by Marjolein Stern

Is Óðinn really ‘alles fader’?, by Mathias Strandberg

Though this be madness, yet there’s method in’t: aspects of word order in skaldic kennings, by Ilya V. Sverdlov

Centre and Periphery in Icelandic Medieval Discourse, by Sverrir Jakobsson

The Versions of Böglunga saga, by Þorleifur Hauksson

Magic in sagas: the curses of Katla and Glámr, by Bernt Øyvind Thorvaldsen

Earl Hákon of Orkney’s Journey to Sweden, by Maria-Claudia Tomany

“Ærið gott gömlum og feigum.” Seeking death in Njáls saga, by Torfi H. Tulinius

Sturla the trickster, by Úlfar Bragason

The Genealogies of West-Icelandic Family Sagas and their relation to the Sturlung family, by Jens Ulff-Møller

From the History of the Obscene: Evident and concealed meanings of the nickname Þambarskelfir, by Fjodor Uspenskij

Hrólfs saga kraka – A History of Editing, by Tereza Vachunová

The Archaeological Material Culture behind the Sagas, by Helena Victor

The reproduction of Old Icelandic close front rounded vowels (, <ý> and ) in a 17th c. manuscript (AM 105 fol) of a part of Hauksbók (AM 371 4to), by Francesco Vitti

Further Remarks on Ohthere’s Beormas, by Vilmos Voigt

Estranged Bedfellows: Saga Scholarship and Archaeological Research in Iceland, by Elisabeth Ida Ward

Kormáks saga and the naming of Scarborough – a likely story?, by Diana Whaley

The Development of Skaldic Language, by Tarrin Wills

Parody and genre in sagas of Icelanders, by Kendra Willson

Towards a Diachronic Analysis of Old Norse-Icelandic Color Terms: The Cases of Green and Yellow, by Kirsten Wolf

Kenning construal as a criterion for the stemmatic analysis of the Codex Upsaliensis in the transmission of Snorra Edda, by Bryan Weston Wyly

Hildibrandr húnakappi and Ásmundr kappabani in Icelandic sagas and Faroese ballads, by Yelena Sesselja Helgadóttir-Yershova

Håkon Jarl Ivarsson and Roðr, by Torun Zachrisson

On the symbiosis of orality and literacy in some Christian rune stone inscriptions, by Kristel Zilmer

12 Feb 2010
Tags: , , , , , , , , ,
Posted in Articles, Books | Comments Off

Time Team: York

In the historic city of York, Time Team simultaneously excavated three separate sites containing archaeology from three distinct periods – all under the eagle eyes of ‘live’ television cameras. York was chosen because of the prolific remains of the Roman, Viking and medieval periods that lie beneath its buildings and streets. Time Team’s task was to discover even more about the people who, in the first millennium, shaped the lives of those living in the second.

‘The extraordinary thing about York,’ said Tony Robinson, ‘is that it’s like an enormous trifle – wherever you dig, you discover amazing layers of history. You can find the jelly of the Vikings, the sponge of the Middle Ages and the maraschino cherry of the Romans!’

Time Team’s three regular experts – archaeologists Mick Aston, Phil Harding and Carenza Lewis – oversaw one site each, supported by a small army of specialised archaeologists, geophysicists, historians, graphics experts and diggers. Meanwhile, Tony, with the help of guest presenters Sandy Toksvig and Paul Thompson, moved between all three digs, asking questions on behalf of viewers.

‘It’s by far the largest show we have ever staged,’ said Tony. ‘We have a team of around 150 people and 12 cameras, and we will be transmitting live broadcasts in a city that will be teeming with tourists.’

7 Feb 2010
Tags: , ,
Posted in Videos | Comments Off

Viking Expansion Northwards: Mediaeval Sources

Viking Expansion Northwards: Mediaeval Sources

By Tette Hofstra and Kees Samplonius

Arctic, Vol.48, No. 3 (1995)

Abstract: Evidence for Scandinavian activities in the northwestern part of the Barents Sea is scanty; according to the Annals, Svalbari was discovered in 1194, but the entry refers to Jan Mayen rather than present-day Svalbard/Spitsbergen. By contrast, the southern fringe of the Barents Sea was more than once crossed by Vikings on their way to Bjarmaland (Russia) in the White Sea area. As early as the end of the ninth century, an Old English source tells of a Norse expedition to that area and Old Norse sources indicate the existence of trade links back to the tenth century, possibly even earlier. The commodities traded and levied were tusks, precious furs and skins. The trade, also with the nearby Sami, was controlled by Norse chieftains living on the coast south of Tromsø, who competed for power with the kings of Norway. Both kings and chieftains were involved in the Bjarmaland expeditions, as can be seen from historical sources and from fiction. A final expedition took place in 1222. The trips to Bjarmaland did not lead to correct ideas about the geography of the Barents Sea area as a whole. Firm knowledge was limited, leaving room for superstition and learned speculations, such as a land-bridge to Greenland and a race of arctic giants, thought to live somewhere north of Bjarmaland. As to the Barents Sea proper, the sources reflect problems with sailing.

Introduction: The Vikings—that is the expanding Scandinavians from the end of the eighth century onwards—were renowned for the skill in sailing that they displayed in large parts of Europe. The Barents Sea area certainly was within the scope of some mediaeval Scandinavians, for Halogaland in northern Norway was settled by Norwegians, and Finnmark (Old Norse Finnmörk) seems to have been visited frequently by them . Sailing was a common way of travelling, and it appears that at least the southwestern shore of the Barents Sea was known to them.

This paper intends to give an impression of the way in which the Norsemen moved north and penetrated the arctic waters. First we discuss some of the written mediaeval sources that are related to Arctic Norway and the Barents Sea area, and look for some general pattern. Next we compare our findings with those of archaeological research, and look at the recent social anthropological approach. As we are primarily concerned with written sources, these two last disciplines are used only as auxiliaries. In a final section we look at the mediaeval speculation with respect to the area, such as the notion of a north-continent and the occurrence of fabulous creatures.

Click here to read/download this article (PDF file)

1 Feb 2010
Tags: , ,
Posted in Articles | Comments Off

Vikings raids on the Spanish Peninsula

Vikings raids on the Spanish Peninsula

By Rolf Scheen

Militaria: Revista de cultura militar, No.8 (1996)

Introduction: The Muslims described «heathens» as Majus. The name Majus – Magians was originally used of the Zoroastrians. It was then extended to other unbelievers, together with the associations of the term — e. g. incest and fire-worship. Again, the Muslims of the west described Spaniards who remained Christian as adjam, that is «Persians»— a term used in the east for non-Arab muslims, usually of Persian origin.

Among the Muslims of the west the same name was applied to the heathen Scandinavians who were believed to be fireworshippers. The great fire festivais of northern Europe (which were not confined to Seandinavia), or even the seasonal burning of the heather, may have suggested this Magian connotation. In later Arab sources the name al-Ordomaníyun is used; it is borrowed from Latin forms Normanni, Nordmanni, Lordomanni, Lormanes, Leodomanni.

As Shetelig observes, the forms of «Norman» are of Norwegian origin. «The classical example is to be found in Alfred’s writings from about 880-890, when the Norwegian Ottar is his source on this matter. Ottar speaks of the whole country, from Vestfold to Finnmark, as being «Nordmanna land» or «Nordweg». It is of interest that while the Saxons were fighting the Danes, both Alfred and AEthelstan had Norwegians in the royal circle.

In Byzantine and Russian sources the names Ros, Rus’ were applied to Scandinavians, mostly of Swedish origin, who had penetrated down the rivers of Eastern Europe and who founded the city of Novgorod. Sometimes the chronicles preserve specific regional names; as Westfaldingi, Norwegians from Vestfold, round the Oslo fjord.

But in general the chronicles are seldom specific and often inaccurate. In referring to the Viking attacks, the Annals of Ulster call the invaders Genti («gentiles»); «the Four Masters» who compited the Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland, use the term Gailí («foreigners»). And it was this Majus/gentiles/gailís who in 844 showed up in the Spanish peninsula.

Click here to read/download this article (PDF file)

11 Jan 2010
Tags: , , , ,
Posted in Articles | Comments Off

Approaches to the study of linguistic identity in the Viking Age

Approaches to the study of linguistic identity in the Viking Age

By Eldar Heide

Published Online (2006)

Introduction: How did the Viking migrations influence linguistic identities in Europe? To my knowledge, this question has hitherto not been addressed by scholars. I will try to define the problem and discuss the types of evidence that may cast light on the question.

My knowledge relevant for this question basically concerns Scandinavia, and through Matthew Townend 2002 I also have some knowledge of language conditions in Viking age England. The expansion from Scandinavia in the Viking age brought the Scandinavian language community in contact with new language communities, or increased such contact, and it brought those language communities in contact with – or in closer contact with –the Old Scandinavian language community.

This language contact obviously had linguistic consequences. Some of those consequences are objective and can be observed in the languages themselves, and they have been addressed by many scholars. Extensive research has been done on words and place-names borrowed between languages because of the Viking expansion. The results of such studies are relevant to linguistic identity, but do not directly concern that topic, because language change does not necessarily imply change of linguistic identity.

 A language can be considerably changed because of contact with another language, but if the users of the language are unaware of the changes – or they are aware of the changes, but conceive the language as one and the same all the time – their linguistic identity may still be the same.

Click here to read/download this article (PDF file)

10 Jan 2010
Tags: , ,
Posted in Articles | Comments Off

The Burning Land

The Burning Land

By Bernard Cornwell

Harpercollins, 2009

ISBN: 9780007219759

In the last years of the ninth century, King Alfred of Wessex is in failing health, and his heir is an untested youth. The Danes, who have failed so many times to conquer Wessex, smell opportunity…

First comes Harald Bloodhair, a savage warrior leading a Viking horde, who is encouraged to cruelty by his woman, Skade. But Alfred still has the services of Uhtred, his unwilling warlord, who leads Harald into a trap and, at Farnham in Surrey, inflicts one of the greatest defeats the Vikings were ever to suffer.

This novel, the fifth in the magnificent series of England’s history tells of the final assaults on Alfred’s Wessex, that Wessex survived to become England is because men like Uhtred defeated an enemy feared throughout Christendom.

Click here to visit Bernard Cornwell’s website

Click here to read an excerpt from the book

1 Jan 2010
Tags: , , ,
Posted in Fiction | Comments Off

Pagans and Christians at the frontier: Viking burial in the Danelaw

Pagans and Christians at the frontier: Viking burial in the Danelaw

By J.D. Richards

The Cross Goes North: Processes of Conversion in Northern Europe, AD 300-1300, edited by Martin Carver (York Medieval Press, 2003)

Introduction: The Vikings are the victims of cultural stereotyping (see e.g. Wawn 2000). In the popular imagination they provide the comic-book archetypal pagans: marauding shaggy war bands living and dying by the sword, with no respect for person or property, and least of all for the hallowed monasteries and clerics of Anglo-Saxon England. They worshipped violent and unforgiving Gods who inhabited the dark places of Northern Europe and they sacrificed animals and humans with complete disregard for Christian ethics. The Viking warrior aspired to the glorious death which would convey him on the journey to Valhalla where he would feast until Ragnorok.

On the other hand, the scholarly world, faced with an acute lack of archaeological evidence for Pagan hordes, has created an alternative stereotype of the peaceful immigrant and trader eager to take on all the trappings of the host society, including its religion. In Anglo-Saxon England, within the space of a single generation, pagan warriors had become Christian farmers. Christian burial was rapidly adopted, many choosing to be buried in churchyards. By the tenth century their ferocious leaders were commissioning stone crosses and establishing private chapels on their new estates.

Click here to read/download this article (PDF file)

14 Dec 2009
Tags: , , ,
Posted in Articles | Comments Off

« Older Entries