Few images of medieval torture are as infamous—or as fictional—as the Iron Maiden. Often imagined as a spiked iron coffin designed to impale victims, it has become a symbol of medieval cruelty. But the truth is, it never existed.
Despite its widespread presence in popular culture and museum displays, there is no credible historical evidence that such a device existed or was used during the Middle Ages.
The first known references to Iron Maidens only appear in the 19th century, particularly during the Victorian era. This period was characterised by a fascination with the macabre, Gothic imagery, and sensationalist history. Museums and collectors – eager to attract public attention – often exhibited fabricated or heavily modified objects as “medieval torture devices.” The Iron Maiden was one such creation, likely inspired by earlier Roman and Renaissance torture instruments but assembled into a fearsome new form to captivate audiences.
Scholars such as Stephen Bull and Alice Rio have demonstrated that the supposed medieval Iron Maiden devices were either modern inventions or elaborate hoaxes. Many were crafted using iron coffins or sarcophagi from the Renaissance or even later periods, retrofitted with spikes and displayed as medieval instruments of cruelty. The myth was further perpetuated by 19th-century authors and dramatists, embedding the Iron Maiden in the public imagination as a symbol of medieval barbarity.
An iron maiden on display at Bran Castle – photo by Gary Todd / Wikimedia Commons
In reality, medieval punitive practices were indeed harsh, but did not involve such contraptions. The Iron Maiden myth serves more as a reflection of Victorian anxieties and entertainment than of medieval historical fact.
Louis XI’s ‘Fillettes’: A Medieval Step Toward Prison Reform
The true story behind the so-called ‘fillettes’ provides a fascinating contrast to the dark myth of the Iron Maiden. During the reign of King Louis XI of France (1461–1483), the term ‘fillette’ referred to a type of prison cell or cage designed to confine individual prisoners. Contrary to later misconceptions and popular confusion, these were neither medieval torture devices nor instruments of cruelty but rather a pragmatic reform intended to improve the health and order of incarceration.
Before Louis XI’s reign, prisoners were often shackled with heavy iron fetters attached to chains and iron balls (known as ‘manacles’ and ‘boulets’), which were not only uncomfortable, but also posed serious health risks, including severe foot infections due to constant contact with damp floors and the inability to move freely. The overcrowding and unsanitary conditions of many medieval prisons frequently led to the spread of disease and suffering.
A ‘fillettes’ on display at Château de Loches – photo by Stephane8888 / Wikimedia Commons
In response, Louis XI introduced the ‘fillettes’ – wooden cages reinforced with iron – as individual cells that provided a standardised, if modest, living space for prisoners. Although not luxurious by any modern standards, these cages were surprisingly spacious compared to the grim conditions typically assumed by legend. Importantly, they included practical features such as a built-in toilet, which was a significant improvement in hygiene compared to earlier methods of confinement.
The purpose of the ‘fillettes’ was to isolate prisoners individually to prevent the spread of disease and reduce the chaos and violence common in crowded dungeons. This approach reflects a notably modern understanding of the importance of hygiene and prisoner well-being for the late 15th century. The last recorded use of these cages continued until the French Revolution (late 18th century), when many old prison infrastructures were dismantled or reformed.
Louis XI’s reforms have often been overshadowed by later myths and caricatures portraying him as a cruel and sinister monarch. However, contemporary historians have worked to rehabilitate his image, showing that many of his policies, including prison reforms, were motivated by concerns for order, justice, and health rather than mere cruelty.
Not Shackles: What the ‘Fillettes’ Really Were
It is also essential to clarify that the original ‘fillettes’ under Louis XI were not the heavy iron shackles of popular legend. These chains were indeed used earlier and sometimes concurrently, with heavier irons that restricted limbs and included iron balls to prevent escape attempts. In some harsher cases, prisoners were bound in ‘fers’ that immobilised arms, legs, body, and neck – an altogether more brutal form of restraint.
The term ‘fillette’ itself came to be associated with these iron fetters and shackles, creating confusion over time. While such devices were certainly punitive, the cage-like ‘fillettes’ were an attempt at more humane incarceration.
Was Louis XI a Tyrant? The Man Behind the Reforms
Louis XI wearing his Collar of the Order of Saint Michael, c. 1469
Louis XI’s reign was marked by numerous intrigues, conflicts, and reforms. Far from a simple tyrant, he was a shrewd ruler deeply concerned with his own safety and reputation. Chroniclers such as Robert Gaguin, writing in the late 15th century, accused him of cruelty, alleging he took pleasure in torture and harsh treatments. For example, Gaguin claimed the king had a private dungeon in his chambers and enjoyed listening to the cries of the tortured.
However, these accounts are often exaggerated or politically motivated. More reliable sources reveal that during his final illness in 1480–1483, Louis XI suffered from paranoia and delusions, understandable given several attempts on his life and the highly unstable political climate of the time. He fortified his residence at Plessis-les-Tours with iron bars and armed guards, revealing his profound fear rather than cruelty.
He was also obsessed with his health, undergoing treatments with gold filings, donkey milk, and “drinkable gold.” His superstition and fear of divine punishment led him to make numerous religious offerings and to avoid mentioning death directly, instead requesting that his attendants say ‘Speak little’ as a euphemism when he was near death.
The enduring myth of the Iron Maiden and the ‘fillettes’ illustrates how popular imagination can distort history. While the Iron Maiden is a Victorian/Neogothic invention, the ‘fillettes’ were a genuine late medieval reform by Louis XI aimed at improving prisoner conditions, not inflicting additional suffering. This historical reality challenges simplistic narratives about medieval justice and reminds us how often history is shaped not by facts, but by fear, fiction, and fascination.
Dr Lorris Chevalier, who has a Ph.D. in medieval literature, is a historical advisor for movies, including The Last Duel and Napoleon. Click here to view his website.
Top Image: A man is forced to kneel before an “iron maiden” in a dungeon in Nuremberg. Lithograph by F. Perlberg, 1863. Wellcome Library / Wikimedia Commons
By Lorris Chevalier
Few images of medieval torture are as infamous—or as fictional—as the Iron Maiden. Often imagined as a spiked iron coffin designed to impale victims, it has become a symbol of medieval cruelty. But the truth is, it never existed.
Despite its widespread presence in popular culture and museum displays, there is no credible historical evidence that such a device existed or was used during the Middle Ages.
The first known references to Iron Maidens only appear in the 19th century, particularly during the Victorian era. This period was characterised by a fascination with the macabre, Gothic imagery, and sensationalist history. Museums and collectors – eager to attract public attention – often exhibited fabricated or heavily modified objects as “medieval torture devices.” The Iron Maiden was one such creation, likely inspired by earlier Roman and Renaissance torture instruments but assembled into a fearsome new form to captivate audiences.
Scholars such as Stephen Bull and Alice Rio have demonstrated that the supposed medieval Iron Maiden devices were either modern inventions or elaborate hoaxes. Many were crafted using iron coffins or sarcophagi from the Renaissance or even later periods, retrofitted with spikes and displayed as medieval instruments of cruelty. The myth was further perpetuated by 19th-century authors and dramatists, embedding the Iron Maiden in the public imagination as a symbol of medieval barbarity.
In reality, medieval punitive practices were indeed harsh, but did not involve such contraptions. The Iron Maiden myth serves more as a reflection of Victorian anxieties and entertainment than of medieval historical fact.
Louis XI’s ‘Fillettes’: A Medieval Step Toward Prison Reform
The true story behind the so-called ‘fillettes’ provides a fascinating contrast to the dark myth of the Iron Maiden. During the reign of King Louis XI of France (1461–1483), the term ‘fillette’ referred to a type of prison cell or cage designed to confine individual prisoners. Contrary to later misconceptions and popular confusion, these were neither medieval torture devices nor instruments of cruelty but rather a pragmatic reform intended to improve the health and order of incarceration.
Before Louis XI’s reign, prisoners were often shackled with heavy iron fetters attached to chains and iron balls (known as ‘manacles’ and ‘boulets’), which were not only uncomfortable, but also posed serious health risks, including severe foot infections due to constant contact with damp floors and the inability to move freely. The overcrowding and unsanitary conditions of many medieval prisons frequently led to the spread of disease and suffering.
In response, Louis XI introduced the ‘fillettes’ – wooden cages reinforced with iron – as individual cells that provided a standardised, if modest, living space for prisoners. Although not luxurious by any modern standards, these cages were surprisingly spacious compared to the grim conditions typically assumed by legend. Importantly, they included practical features such as a built-in toilet, which was a significant improvement in hygiene compared to earlier methods of confinement.
The purpose of the ‘fillettes’ was to isolate prisoners individually to prevent the spread of disease and reduce the chaos and violence common in crowded dungeons. This approach reflects a notably modern understanding of the importance of hygiene and prisoner well-being for the late 15th century. The last recorded use of these cages continued until the French Revolution (late 18th century), when many old prison infrastructures were dismantled or reformed.
Louis XI’s reforms have often been overshadowed by later myths and caricatures portraying him as a cruel and sinister monarch. However, contemporary historians have worked to rehabilitate his image, showing that many of his policies, including prison reforms, were motivated by concerns for order, justice, and health rather than mere cruelty.
Not Shackles: What the ‘Fillettes’ Really Were
It is also essential to clarify that the original ‘fillettes’ under Louis XI were not the heavy iron shackles of popular legend. These chains were indeed used earlier and sometimes concurrently, with heavier irons that restricted limbs and included iron balls to prevent escape attempts. In some harsher cases, prisoners were bound in ‘fers’ that immobilised arms, legs, body, and neck – an altogether more brutal form of restraint.
The term ‘fillette’ itself came to be associated with these iron fetters and shackles, creating confusion over time. While such devices were certainly punitive, the cage-like ‘fillettes’ were an attempt at more humane incarceration.
Was Louis XI a Tyrant? The Man Behind the Reforms
Louis XI’s reign was marked by numerous intrigues, conflicts, and reforms. Far from a simple tyrant, he was a shrewd ruler deeply concerned with his own safety and reputation. Chroniclers such as Robert Gaguin, writing in the late 15th century, accused him of cruelty, alleging he took pleasure in torture and harsh treatments. For example, Gaguin claimed the king had a private dungeon in his chambers and enjoyed listening to the cries of the tortured.
However, these accounts are often exaggerated or politically motivated. More reliable sources reveal that during his final illness in 1480–1483, Louis XI suffered from paranoia and delusions, understandable given several attempts on his life and the highly unstable political climate of the time. He fortified his residence at Plessis-les-Tours with iron bars and armed guards, revealing his profound fear rather than cruelty.
He was also obsessed with his health, undergoing treatments with gold filings, donkey milk, and “drinkable gold.” His superstition and fear of divine punishment led him to make numerous religious offerings and to avoid mentioning death directly, instead requesting that his attendants say ‘Speak little’ as a euphemism when he was near death.
The enduring myth of the Iron Maiden and the ‘fillettes’ illustrates how popular imagination can distort history. While the Iron Maiden is a Victorian/Neogothic invention, the ‘fillettes’ were a genuine late medieval reform by Louis XI aimed at improving prisoner conditions, not inflicting additional suffering. This historical reality challenges simplistic narratives about medieval justice and reminds us how often history is shaped not by facts, but by fear, fiction, and fascination.
Dr Lorris Chevalier, who has a Ph.D. in medieval literature, is a historical advisor for movies, including The Last Duel and Napoleon. Click here to view his website.
Click here to read more from Lorris Chevalier
Further Reading:
Isabelle Durand-Le Guern, “Louis XI entre mythe et histoire,” Cahiers de recherches médiévales, Vol. 11 (2004)
Top Image: A man is forced to kneel before an “iron maiden” in a dungeon in Nuremberg. Lithograph by F. Perlberg, 1863. Wellcome Library / Wikimedia Commons
Subscribe to Medievalverse
Related Posts