If you were living in London in the mid-15th century, you may have got caught up in the alchemy craze. The idea of turning base metals into gold and silver was seducing many people, including the King of England.
Alchemy is often a practice associated with the Middle Ages. It was a theory that all matter was composed of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. With the right knowledge, someone could ‘transmute’ one substance into something else, including turning lead into gold.
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People have been practicing alchemy since ancient times, without success, but the belief that it could work fascinated people. One of them was King Henry VI of England (1422-1461). An article by Wendy J. Turner explores how the English ruler encouraged many prominent Londoners to experiment with alchemy.
The king’s interest in alchemy seems to have emerged in the 1440s when he began issuing royal licenses to practice the ‘science’. The first was to John Cobbe, a haberdasher and tailor from the city of London who had even served as a Member of Parliament. Cobbe had already been doing alchemy and this was worrying his neighbours who saw it as an “unlawful art.” This led him to request from the crown a license “to operate on certain matter by the art of philosophy” with the ultimate goal “to transmute imperfect metals from their proper sort into perfect gold of silver.”
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He was the first of many. Turner tells of others from the 1440s: Richard Cope, Edmund Trafford, Thomas Assheton, William Hurteles, Alexander Worsley, Thomas Bolton, George Horneby, John Mistelden (along with his son Robert and their three servants) and several others all got licenses to perform alchemy. Many of these were prominent London merchants.
The practice of alchemy was not limited to men who got royal approval. A law from 1447 reveals that con artists were plying this trade too. Henry established a royal commission that would arrest anyone:
pretending themselves expert in the science of multiplying gold and silver, have approached simple persons and received from them on such false pretences sums of money and jewels of gold and silver, making no restitution.
Those caught were supposed to be brought to the king and his council with their instruments – probably so that Henry could determine if they might be genuine.
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In need of money
Henry VI’s interest in alchemy came at a time when England’s fortunes were ebbing. The 1440s would see the English losing against the French in the Hundred Years’ War, and this was draining the royal treasury. The English monarch had to ask for a lot of loans from prominent Londoners and others in England, loans that he was increasingly not paying back. Therefore, for Henry, the idea of simply creating gold and silver was his great hope of reviving his finances.
London, the bustling hub of medieval commerce, played a central role in the relationship between alchemists and the monarchy. Merchants in London, particularly those involved in the lucrative wool and cloth industries, threw their support behind Henry VI’s initiative to support alchemists. The potential benefits of alchemy, such as creating wealth and solving financial woes, resonated with the business community in the capital.
Groat, struck in Calais with portrait of King Henry VI. Image by Numisantica / Wikimedia Commons
The 1450s would see Henry’s health deteriorate, the English driven out of France, and rebellions within the country. However, there were more royal licences for alchemy, including those given to Henry’s personal physicians. Commissions of experts were formed to test any discoveries. The one created in 1457 included two bishops and four abbots. Turner notes:
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Henry explained that his new reliance on churchmen resulted from their ability to perform the Eucharist; after all, if priests could already transubstantiate bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, they probably stood the greatest chance of transmuting base metal into gold.
As the reign of Henry VI gave way to that of Edward IV, the support for alchemists continued unabated. Edward IV maintained the royal patronage of alchemists during his rule. The documents indicate a consistent pattern of royal support for alchemists across successive monarchs, highlighting the enduring fascination with the mysteries of alchemy within the English court.
Turner concludes:
Henry VI began investigating the science of alchemy in hopes of finding a ready source of cash, much of which was needed to support England’s military efforts in the final stages of the Hundred Years War. Once again, he turned to the business community of London, not only to lend him more money, but also to help investigate the science on which pinned so much hope. Although his alchemical efforts came to naught, he spurred an English interest in alchemy that would continue into future reigns. Ultimately, the result would be the seventeenth-century evolution of the modern science of chemistry… financial exigencies of a medieval war had a least some influence on the Scientific Revolution of future centuries.
The article, “London Businessmen and Alchemists: Raising Money for the Hundred Years War,” is published in The Hundred Years War (Part III): Further Considerations, edited by L.J. Andrew Villalon and Donald J. Kagay and published by Brill. You can buy it on Amazon.com.
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Wendy J. Turner is a Professor at Augusta University, where she specializes in medieval law, medicine, science, forensics, and disabilities. Click here to view her university webpage.
Top Image: A 15th-century alchemy treatise – Wellcome L0031726
If you were living in London in the mid-15th century, you may have got caught up in the alchemy craze. The idea of turning base metals into gold and silver was seducing many people, including the King of England.
Alchemy is often a practice associated with the Middle Ages. It was a theory that all matter was composed of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. With the right knowledge, someone could ‘transmute’ one substance into something else, including turning lead into gold.
People have been practicing alchemy since ancient times, without success, but the belief that it could work fascinated people. One of them was King Henry VI of England (1422-1461). An article by Wendy J. Turner explores how the English ruler encouraged many prominent Londoners to experiment with alchemy.
The king’s interest in alchemy seems to have emerged in the 1440s when he began issuing royal licenses to practice the ‘science’. The first was to John Cobbe, a haberdasher and tailor from the city of London who had even served as a Member of Parliament. Cobbe had already been doing alchemy and this was worrying his neighbours who saw it as an “unlawful art.” This led him to request from the crown a license “to operate on certain matter by the art of philosophy” with the ultimate goal “to transmute imperfect metals from their proper sort into perfect gold of silver.”
He was the first of many. Turner tells of others from the 1440s: Richard Cope, Edmund Trafford, Thomas Assheton, William Hurteles, Alexander Worsley, Thomas Bolton, George Horneby, John Mistelden (along with his son Robert and their three servants) and several others all got licenses to perform alchemy. Many of these were prominent London merchants.
The practice of alchemy was not limited to men who got royal approval. A law from 1447 reveals that con artists were plying this trade too. Henry established a royal commission that would arrest anyone:
pretending themselves expert in the science of multiplying gold and silver, have approached simple persons and received from them on such false pretences sums of money and jewels of gold and silver, making no restitution.
Those caught were supposed to be brought to the king and his council with their instruments – probably so that Henry could determine if they might be genuine.
In need of money
Henry VI’s interest in alchemy came at a time when England’s fortunes were ebbing. The 1440s would see the English losing against the French in the Hundred Years’ War, and this was draining the royal treasury. The English monarch had to ask for a lot of loans from prominent Londoners and others in England, loans that he was increasingly not paying back. Therefore, for Henry, the idea of simply creating gold and silver was his great hope of reviving his finances.
London, the bustling hub of medieval commerce, played a central role in the relationship between alchemists and the monarchy. Merchants in London, particularly those involved in the lucrative wool and cloth industries, threw their support behind Henry VI’s initiative to support alchemists. The potential benefits of alchemy, such as creating wealth and solving financial woes, resonated with the business community in the capital.
The 1450s would see Henry’s health deteriorate, the English driven out of France, and rebellions within the country. However, there were more royal licences for alchemy, including those given to Henry’s personal physicians. Commissions of experts were formed to test any discoveries. The one created in 1457 included two bishops and four abbots. Turner notes:
Henry explained that his new reliance on churchmen resulted from their ability to perform the Eucharist; after all, if priests could already transubstantiate bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, they probably stood the greatest chance of transmuting base metal into gold.
As the reign of Henry VI gave way to that of Edward IV, the support for alchemists continued unabated. Edward IV maintained the royal patronage of alchemists during his rule. The documents indicate a consistent pattern of royal support for alchemists across successive monarchs, highlighting the enduring fascination with the mysteries of alchemy within the English court.
Turner concludes:
Henry VI began investigating the science of alchemy in hopes of finding a ready source of cash, much of which was needed to support England’s military efforts in the final stages of the Hundred Years War. Once again, he turned to the business community of London, not only to lend him more money, but also to help investigate the science on which pinned so much hope. Although his alchemical efforts came to naught, he spurred an English interest in alchemy that would continue into future reigns. Ultimately, the result would be the seventeenth-century evolution of the modern science of chemistry… financial exigencies of a medieval war had a least some influence on the Scientific Revolution of future centuries.
The article, “London Businessmen and Alchemists: Raising Money for the Hundred Years War,” is published in The Hundred Years War (Part III): Further Considerations, edited by L.J. Andrew Villalon and Donald J. Kagay and published by Brill. You can buy it on Amazon.com.
Wendy J. Turner is a Professor at Augusta University, where she specializes in medieval law, medicine, science, forensics, and disabilities. Click here to view her university webpage.
Top Image: A 15th-century alchemy treatise – Wellcome L0031726
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