A new study of medieval Florence reveals how workers building the city’s famous cathedral faced strict rules, financial penalties and even imprisonment, while also benefiting from measures intended to protect them from dangerous working conditions.
Published in the Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook, the research by Leonardo Ridolfi of the University of Siena examines how labour was managed during the construction of Florence Cathedral, including Filippo Brunelleschi’s celebrated dome. Drawing on archival records from 1353 to 1382 and 1417 to 1436, the study explores workplace discipline, occupational safety, injuries and compensation.
The research is based on the administrative records of the Opera del Duomo, the institution responsible for constructing and maintaining the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Its surviving documents provide unusually detailed information about the experiences of medieval construction workers.
Strict Rules for Medieval Workers
Florence Cathedral (Santa Maria del Fiore), depicted in the Codice Rustici, a fifteenth-century illustrated manuscript dating to the 1440s, shortly after the completion of Brunelleschi’s dome in 1436. Image: Wikimedia Commons (Public Domain).
Workers employed by the Opera del Duomo were subject to regulations governing their attendance, working hours and conduct. One important restriction concerned their ability to accept employment elsewhere.
In 1377, master craftsmen were forbidden from working on other projects without permission from the cathedral authorities. Violations carried a fine of five florins, equivalent to approximately 23 days of a master’s wages. By 1379, the restrictions had been extended to other workers, including labourers and apprentices, with unauthorized absences potentially resulting in dismissal.
These regulations changed over time, and workers could sometimes receive permission to undertake private commissions. Ridolfi identified 92 provisions granting such permissions between 1417 and 1436. Among those employing cathedral craftsmen were prominent Florentine families, including the Medici, Albizzi, Peruzzi, Salviati and Strozzi.
However, permissions became much less common during periods of intensive construction. Between 1424 and 1429, as the workforce expanded to meet the demands of building Brunelleschi’s dome, no permits for outside employment were recorded in the surviving documents.
The cathedral authorities also monitored attendance and punished misconduct. In 1420, an unjustified absence could result in a fine of 20 soldi, equivalent to the highest daily wage of a master craftsman. Criminal behaviour could lead to dismissal or imprisonment. Ridolfi found a few cases where workers were punished for theft:
For example, in April 1432, Nanni di Franco, a messenger of the Opera, was permanently dismissed from all future service after being found guilty of stealing a cloak from a servant of the banking officials and for generally serving the Opera poorly and negligently.
Yet enforcement was not always inflexible. Some workers were readmitted after violating regulations, while others received reduced penalties because of their personal circumstances. In 1434, a stonemason named Taddeo was permanently dismissed for repeatedly stealing his colleagues’ tools, but his poverty was taken into consideration when determining his punishment.
The rules also extended beyond construction workers. Ridolfi notes an unusual case involving the cathedral’s clergy:
Several provisions related to absence also concerned the cathedral chaplains: in August 1431 they were evicted from their residence for failing to celebrate the required number of masses (three per week), a decision taken by the sacristans and endorsed by the Opera. Their furnishings were publicly placed in the street for at least one hour, as a public demonstration of the fault committed.
Keeping Workers Safe on Brunelleschi’s Dome
A drawing of Florence Cathedral and Brunelleschi’s dome by Ludovico Cardi, known as Cigoli (1559–1613). The drawing illustrates the cathedral’s construction techniques. Image: Wikimedia Commons.
Alongside these disciplinary measures, the cathedral authorities introduced regulations intended to reduce the dangers of medieval construction work. Ridolfi identified 73 safety-related entries in the cathedral’s records. These included 41 concerning workplace injuries, alongside regulations governing dangerous activities, adverse weather, wine consumption and workers’ movements on the dome.
One rule prohibited workers stationed on the dome from descending more than once during the working day, normally during their designated rest period. In August 1427, the authorities ordered a clock installed on the dome to monitor working time and help record attendance. By 1434, workers violating the restrictions could lose an entire day’s wages.
These measures appear to have served both safety and productivity. Limiting movement up and down the dome reduced unnecessary journeys at considerable heights while ensuring that workers remained at their assigned tasks.
The authorities also recognised the dangers posed by bad weather. Some regulations required workers to receive their full wages when rain prevented them from working. In one case, officials ordered the restoration of wages that had been deducted because of rainfall.
In October 1432, craftsmen working on the dome were permitted to move to lower levels during rain. Workers at other construction sites could also be reassigned when weather conditions made their usual workplaces inaccessible.
Another concern was wine consumption. Wine was occasionally distributed to workers, particularly during celebrations or the completion of construction projects, but drinking at dangerous heights required additional supervision.
In April 1426, the authorities ordered that wine brought up to the dome be diluted by at least one-third, imposing a fine of ten lire for violations. Two months later, the rules were modified to permit undiluted wine, provided that any worker becoming intoxicated was immediately removed from his post.
The cathedral authorities also prohibited dangerous behaviour, including leaning or hanging outside the walls without permission.
Some workers even received additional wages for undertaking particularly hazardous assignments. In September 1427, three stonemasons required to suspend themselves over the dome were awarded 20 soldi per day, representing increases of approximately 5 to 13 percent over their previous wages.
Accidents, Deaths and Compensation
A view of Brunelleschi’s fifteenth-century dome at Florence Cathedral (Santa Maria del Fiore), photographed from Giotto’s Bell Tower. Photo by Zairon / Wikimedia Commons (CC BY 4.0).
Despite these precautions, construction remained dangerous. Ridolfi identified 34 distinct workplace accidents affecting 39 workers across the two periods examined. These incidents occurred at the cathedral and other construction sites managed by the Opera, including a quarry supplying building materials. The most common recorded causes included falls from heights and injuries caused by falling stones, bricks and other construction materials.
Five fatal accidents were documented. These included the death of master carpenter Nanni di Zanobi in July 1378, after which the cathedral authorities awarded four florins to his widow to support her family.
Three fatalities were recorded between 1417 and 1436, although two occurred in 1420, shortly before construction of Brunelleschi’s dome began. During the actual construction of the dome, from August 1420 to August 1436, only one fatality is documented: Nencio di Chello, who fell from the walls in February 1422. Although the records may not capture every accident, the relatively small number of recorded deaths is noteworthy given the dangers involved.
The study also reveals that injured workers sometimes received financial assistance while recovering. In 1363, master craftsman Giovanni Belcari received ten lire after being injured in a fall from the cathedral walls. Two years later, following another accident involving Belcari and a fellow craftsman, the authorities ordered that they receive payment for their days of incapacity as though they had been working.
Other workers received smaller amounts. In June 1418, a labourer named Piero di Francesco was struck by a wheel and left unable to work. He received half his normal wages for eight days.
One particularly revealing case involved Domenico di Nardo, who injured his leg and foot when struck by a falling stone in December 1378. He initially received five lire, followed by additional payments in January, March and June of the following year. Altogether, the assistance amounted to 13.5 lire, equivalent to approximately 30 days of his normal wages.
Ridolfi’s analysis suggests that the seriousness of an injury was more important than a worker’s occupational status in determining compensation, although the relatively small number of cases makes firm conclusions difficult.
Rethinking Medieval Working Conditions
Carpenters in a 14th century copy of Tacuina sanitatis
The findings offer a more complicated picture of employment in the decades following the Black Death. At Florence Cathedral, workers generally earned 10 percent less per day than comparable craftsmen elsewhere in the city. However, employment with the Opera offered greater stability and continuity, which could make the positions attractive despite lower wages and strict regulations.
Ridolfi also finds that labour control generally became less restrictive between the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, although supervision intensified whenever construction activity increased.
He explains the wider significance of the research:
By offering a more nuanced analysis of pre-industrial working conditions, one that moves beyond the traditional focus on wages, this study of the work on the Florence Cathedral contributes to a deeper understanding of the pre-industrial labour market, while also shedding light on wage formation and patterns of remuneration. In doing so, it also contributes to our understanding on the so-called Golden Age of Labour that followed the Black Death in the mid-14th century. This period has often been characterized by high wages and improved bargaining power for surviving workers, particularly in agriculture, but it deserves further scrutiny in terms of how labour was managed, controlled, and protected (or neglected) in the workplace.
The study suggests that medieval employers could combine demanding disciplinary practices with measures intended to protect workers and compensate them for injuries. Such arrangements were not necessarily typical of other medieval workplaces, but the unusually extensive records from Florence demonstrate that occupational safety and labour management were important concerns long before the Industrial Revolution.
The study, “Job Control and Occupational Safety: New Perspectives on Labour Conditions in Medieval Florence,” by Leonardo Ridolfi, is published in Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook. Click here to read it.
Top Image: Florence Cathedral (Santa Maria del Fiore), viewed from the Palazzo Vecchio. Its famous dome was constructed between 1420 and 1436 under the direction of Filippo Brunelleschi. Photo by bvi4092 / Wikimedia Commons (CC BY 2.0).
A new study of medieval Florence reveals how workers building the city’s famous cathedral faced strict rules, financial penalties and even imprisonment, while also benefiting from measures intended to protect them from dangerous working conditions.
Published in the Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook, the research by Leonardo Ridolfi of the University of Siena examines how labour was managed during the construction of Florence Cathedral, including Filippo Brunelleschi’s celebrated dome. Drawing on archival records from 1353 to 1382 and 1417 to 1436, the study explores workplace discipline, occupational safety, injuries and compensation.
The research is based on the administrative records of the Opera del Duomo, the institution responsible for constructing and maintaining the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Its surviving documents provide unusually detailed information about the experiences of medieval construction workers.
Strict Rules for Medieval Workers
Workers employed by the Opera del Duomo were subject to regulations governing their attendance, working hours and conduct. One important restriction concerned their ability to accept employment elsewhere.
In 1377, master craftsmen were forbidden from working on other projects without permission from the cathedral authorities. Violations carried a fine of five florins, equivalent to approximately 23 days of a master’s wages. By 1379, the restrictions had been extended to other workers, including labourers and apprentices, with unauthorized absences potentially resulting in dismissal.
These regulations changed over time, and workers could sometimes receive permission to undertake private commissions. Ridolfi identified 92 provisions granting such permissions between 1417 and 1436. Among those employing cathedral craftsmen were prominent Florentine families, including the Medici, Albizzi, Peruzzi, Salviati and Strozzi.
However, permissions became much less common during periods of intensive construction. Between 1424 and 1429, as the workforce expanded to meet the demands of building Brunelleschi’s dome, no permits for outside employment were recorded in the surviving documents.
The cathedral authorities also monitored attendance and punished misconduct. In 1420, an unjustified absence could result in a fine of 20 soldi, equivalent to the highest daily wage of a master craftsman. Criminal behaviour could lead to dismissal or imprisonment. Ridolfi found a few cases where workers were punished for theft:
For example, in April 1432, Nanni di Franco, a messenger of the Opera, was permanently dismissed from all future service after being found guilty of stealing a cloak from a servant of the banking officials and for generally serving the Opera poorly and negligently.
Yet enforcement was not always inflexible. Some workers were readmitted after violating regulations, while others received reduced penalties because of their personal circumstances. In 1434, a stonemason named Taddeo was permanently dismissed for repeatedly stealing his colleagues’ tools, but his poverty was taken into consideration when determining his punishment.
The rules also extended beyond construction workers. Ridolfi notes an unusual case involving the cathedral’s clergy:
Several provisions related to absence also concerned the cathedral chaplains: in August 1431 they were evicted from their residence for failing to celebrate the required number of masses (three per week), a decision taken by the sacristans and endorsed by the Opera. Their furnishings were publicly placed in the street for at least one hour, as a public demonstration of the fault committed.
Keeping Workers Safe on Brunelleschi’s Dome
Alongside these disciplinary measures, the cathedral authorities introduced regulations intended to reduce the dangers of medieval construction work. Ridolfi identified 73 safety-related entries in the cathedral’s records. These included 41 concerning workplace injuries, alongside regulations governing dangerous activities, adverse weather, wine consumption and workers’ movements on the dome.
One rule prohibited workers stationed on the dome from descending more than once during the working day, normally during their designated rest period. In August 1427, the authorities ordered a clock installed on the dome to monitor working time and help record attendance. By 1434, workers violating the restrictions could lose an entire day’s wages.
These measures appear to have served both safety and productivity. Limiting movement up and down the dome reduced unnecessary journeys at considerable heights while ensuring that workers remained at their assigned tasks.
The authorities also recognised the dangers posed by bad weather. Some regulations required workers to receive their full wages when rain prevented them from working. In one case, officials ordered the restoration of wages that had been deducted because of rainfall.
In October 1432, craftsmen working on the dome were permitted to move to lower levels during rain. Workers at other construction sites could also be reassigned when weather conditions made their usual workplaces inaccessible.
Another concern was wine consumption. Wine was occasionally distributed to workers, particularly during celebrations or the completion of construction projects, but drinking at dangerous heights required additional supervision.
In April 1426, the authorities ordered that wine brought up to the dome be diluted by at least one-third, imposing a fine of ten lire for violations. Two months later, the rules were modified to permit undiluted wine, provided that any worker becoming intoxicated was immediately removed from his post.
The cathedral authorities also prohibited dangerous behaviour, including leaning or hanging outside the walls without permission.
Some workers even received additional wages for undertaking particularly hazardous assignments. In September 1427, three stonemasons required to suspend themselves over the dome were awarded 20 soldi per day, representing increases of approximately 5 to 13 percent over their previous wages.
Accidents, Deaths and Compensation
Despite these precautions, construction remained dangerous. Ridolfi identified 34 distinct workplace accidents affecting 39 workers across the two periods examined. These incidents occurred at the cathedral and other construction sites managed by the Opera, including a quarry supplying building materials. The most common recorded causes included falls from heights and injuries caused by falling stones, bricks and other construction materials.
Five fatal accidents were documented. These included the death of master carpenter Nanni di Zanobi in July 1378, after which the cathedral authorities awarded four florins to his widow to support her family.
Three fatalities were recorded between 1417 and 1436, although two occurred in 1420, shortly before construction of Brunelleschi’s dome began. During the actual construction of the dome, from August 1420 to August 1436, only one fatality is documented: Nencio di Chello, who fell from the walls in February 1422. Although the records may not capture every accident, the relatively small number of recorded deaths is noteworthy given the dangers involved.
The study also reveals that injured workers sometimes received financial assistance while recovering. In 1363, master craftsman Giovanni Belcari received ten lire after being injured in a fall from the cathedral walls. Two years later, following another accident involving Belcari and a fellow craftsman, the authorities ordered that they receive payment for their days of incapacity as though they had been working.
Other workers received smaller amounts. In June 1418, a labourer named Piero di Francesco was struck by a wheel and left unable to work. He received half his normal wages for eight days.
One particularly revealing case involved Domenico di Nardo, who injured his leg and foot when struck by a falling stone in December 1378. He initially received five lire, followed by additional payments in January, March and June of the following year. Altogether, the assistance amounted to 13.5 lire, equivalent to approximately 30 days of his normal wages.
Ridolfi’s analysis suggests that the seriousness of an injury was more important than a worker’s occupational status in determining compensation, although the relatively small number of cases makes firm conclusions difficult.
Rethinking Medieval Working Conditions
The findings offer a more complicated picture of employment in the decades following the Black Death. At Florence Cathedral, workers generally earned 10 percent less per day than comparable craftsmen elsewhere in the city. However, employment with the Opera offered greater stability and continuity, which could make the positions attractive despite lower wages and strict regulations.
Ridolfi also finds that labour control generally became less restrictive between the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, although supervision intensified whenever construction activity increased.
He explains the wider significance of the research:
By offering a more nuanced analysis of pre-industrial working conditions, one that moves beyond the traditional focus on wages, this study of the work on the Florence Cathedral contributes to a deeper understanding of the pre-industrial labour market, while also shedding light on wage formation and patterns of remuneration. In doing so, it also contributes to our understanding on the so-called Golden Age of Labour that followed the Black Death in the mid-14th century. This period has often been characterized by high wages and improved bargaining power for surviving workers, particularly in agriculture, but it deserves further scrutiny in terms of how labour was managed, controlled, and protected (or neglected) in the workplace.
The study suggests that medieval employers could combine demanding disciplinary practices with measures intended to protect workers and compensate them for injuries. Such arrangements were not necessarily typical of other medieval workplaces, but the unusually extensive records from Florence demonstrate that occupational safety and labour management were important concerns long before the Industrial Revolution.
The study, “Job Control and Occupational Safety: New Perspectives on Labour Conditions in Medieval Florence,” by Leonardo Ridolfi, is published in Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook. Click here to read it.
Top Image: Florence Cathedral (Santa Maria del Fiore), viewed from the Palazzo Vecchio. Its famous dome was constructed between 1420 and 1436 under the direction of Filippo Brunelleschi. Photo by bvi4092 / Wikimedia Commons (CC BY 2.0).
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