In the Middle Ages, the moon was often imagined as a radiant and alluring deity. We will look at medieval literary and artistic depictions of two moon goddesses from different parts of the world: Chang’e and Diana. Both Chang’e and Diana are presented as deeply powerful and immensely beautiful, and they appear in many different contexts.
What follows draws on research from my new book The Medieval Moon: A History of Haunting and Blessing, which studies the moon from a global perspective. (Note: ‘medieval’ is used as shorthand in this article and this book to label the period from c. 500–1600. However, ‘medieval’ is a term that initially developed to describe European history and we should apply it to non-European cultures with care).
Chang’e
Chang E, The Moon Goddess – Yuan or early Ming dynasty, c. 1350/1440 – image courtesy the Art Institute of Chicago
Chang’e is known as the Chinese goddess of the moon. There are many stories about her, and she was even a main character in the 2020 Netflix children’s film Over the Moon. But many of these stories are much earlier, dating to the ancient or medieval periods. According to legend, Chang’e drank an elixir of immortality and ascended to the moon. In an early record of her myth, in a divination book of the fifth century BC known as the Guizang, Chang’e steals the elixir of immortality from Xiwangmu, the Queen Mother of the West. In a text known as the Huainanzi, from early in the Han Dynasty (206 BC – AD 220), we are told that Chang’e actually stole the elixir from her husband Yi, who had in turn received it from Xiwangmu. In some versions of Chang’e’s story, she is turned into a toad, perhaps as punishment (Yang and An, 2008: 86–88).
We see an evolution in approaches to Chang’e over time. In the Han Dynasty, there was an emphasis on her immortality at the moment of her ascension to the moon (benyue 奔月). In the Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907), she was associated with solitariness and even loneliness. This is evident in the poetry of Li Bai (701–762), Meng Haoran (689–740), Bai Juyi (772–846), and Li Shangyin (813–858). During the Ming Dynasty (AD 1368–1644), Chang’e became a more secularised figure (see further Pan, 2013: 5 and 9 n. 14; and Kalmer and Zou, 2023). Let us focus on the Tang and Ming Dynasties.
Poet Li Shangyin (813–858), living during the Tang Dynasty, composed a poem about Chang’e. In this poem, he asks Chang’e if she regrets stealing the immortality potion and he imagines her living alone through long and difficult nights (a translation of this poem is available in Bynner, 1929: 75). In this poem, Chang’e suffers from terrible loneliness and perhaps even remorse. This poem humanises the goddess, reminding us that she was once a mortal woman, experiencing the thoughts and emotions that can torment a human soul.
There is also a legend that the traditional piece of music and dance, Skirts of Rainbow, Feather Coats (Nichang yuyi), dating to the Tang Dynasty, was composed by Emperor Xuanzong (685–762) after the moon goddess Chang’e commanded him to journey to the moon. While on the moon, he encountered this music and then wrote it down from memory when he awoke from his lunar vision (see further Owen, 2010: 310–311; and Isaacson, 2019: 152).
The Moon Goddess Chang E depicted in a hanging scroll from the Ming Dynasty – image courtesy The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Moving forward in history, there is a painting on a fan dating to 1350–1445, from the Yuan (1279–1368) or early Ming Dynasty, which shows Chang’e beneath a large tree and abundant clouds, with the full moon shimmering close by her. This fan is now housed at the Art Institute of Chicago. The painting uses soft greens and blues, and Chang’e wears a long flowing gown with blue lining, her hair elegantly tied up with what seems to be a hat on her head. The large tree bows down protectively over the goddess, and she seems to gently touch it. In this image, Chang’e almost melds into the landscape, becoming part of all that surrounds her.
Similarly, in a hanging scroll (now housed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art), from the Ming Dynasty, we see Chang’e looking strong and beguiling. Her hair is tied up with a red ribbon, and she wears a flowing gown, again with blue lining. She holds a cassia branch, a recurring feature of moon-scenes, and the cassia branch matches in colour with the blue lining on her gown. With the cassia branch in hand, she looks softly upwards and seems to almost levitate, perhaps recalling her ascension to the moon. The scroll also includes a poem by Tang Yin (1470–1524), who says that the goddess dwells in the Moon Palace among phoenixes and cranes—both birds associated with immortality (see further Gao, 2001; and Ye, 2002: 437–440).
In another artefact of the Ming Dynasty, a statue made of bronze and gold, dating to c. 1600 (now in the Vanderbilt University Museum of Art), Chang’e is again seen as a commanding, attractive, and graceful figure. Again, she wears her hair up, and is seen in a flowing gown. Crucially, she holds a rabbit or hare—this rabbit or hare was seen as an inhabitant of the moon and often as a companion of Chang’e. As she holds the rabbit or hare, she looks out inquisitively at the viewer, returning our gaze curiously and perhaps even defiantly, so that human and goddess contemplate each other. A piece of wood has been placed inside the statue, at an unidentified time after the statue was made. This offering may echo Buddhist traditions, and thus also demonstrates the interaction between Buddhism and Daoism (see further Mathieu, 1990; Wang, 2005; and Kalmer and Zou, 2023).
Diana
Diana with her bow depicted in a 15th-century manuscript – British Library MS BL Harley 4431 fol. 101r
Diana’s association with the moon is a deep and lasting one in the medieval world. Diana is the Roman name for the goddess; her Greek equivalent is Artemis. In Cornish writer John Trevisa’s (fl. 1342–1402) On the Properties of Things, he says that the moon is “‘icleped Diana, goddess of woodis & of groves’ (called Diana, goddess of woods and of groves).” John Trevisa’s words are echoed in the painting Diana the Huntress by Giampietrino (c. 1495–1553), now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where we see a nude Diana positioned with bow and arrow in hand, a stag behind her. Elsewhere in the English language, the moon is called ‘Lucina’, who may be identified with Diana. Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400) refers to “Lucina the sheene” (Lucina the bright) in The Franklin’s Tale (one of the Canterbury Tales, line 1045), and in the epic and tragic poem Troilus and Criseyde (Book IV, line 1591).
The name ‘Diana’ specifically (not Lucina) is invoked in many medieval sources. In a thirteenth-century English saint’s life known as St Juliana, we see the pagans pray to the “‘drihfule godd’ (noble god) Apollo and ‘the deorewurthe Diane’ (the precious Diana).” In this text, the invocations to Apollo and Diana are portrayed in a negative light, reflecting the limited perspectives of the pagans who do not know the ‘true’ Christian God. The invocation is in particular spoken by Affricanus, the violent and cruel father of the saint Juliana, and we later see him order horrific tortures on his own daughter.
There are nonetheless more positive, affirming depictions of Diana. One of the early works of Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375) is known as Caccia di Diana (Diana’s Hunt) and tells the story of the goddess Diana gathering various women together for a hunt in the woods. The narrator of this story is a stag who is later transformed into a man. As the story begins, the narrator hears a spirit calling the women together, saying that the goddess Diana has selected them to join her in Parthenope (Canto 1, line 8). Diana is a dominant goddess: she orders the women to bathe and then clothe themselves in gowns of purple, garlanded with olive leaves and flowers (Canto 2, lines 29–30). Diana arranges the women into four teams of hunters, and provides them with all sorts of weapons and hunting animals. After a successful hunt, one of the ladies rebels against Diana and says that the women no longer want to follow her. Diana leaves in a rage, returning to the heaven from which she came (Canto 16, lines 55–58). The women then call on Venus, goddess of love. In this poem, we see a powerful and agile goddess in Diana, but she is at last supplanted by the graceful and tender Venus.
Diana the Huntress by Giampietrino (c. 1495–1553) – image courtesy The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Boccaccio was a major source for Chaucer, and Diana has a clear presence in the English writer’s work too. In Chaucer’s The Knight’s Tale we see Diana’s Temple, and in it is a statue of the goddess: we see her poised on a hart with small hounds around her, and a waxing moon beneath her feet. She wears yellowish green and holds a bow and arrow (lines 2075–2082). (Diana’s temple also features in The Franklin’s Tale, lines 1387–1394). In The Knight’s Tale, the young and vulnerable girl Emelye prays to Diana, asking to remain chaste. She follows a careful ritual involving incense and mead (2272–2294), and the description is based on Boccaccio’s Teseida (VII 71–76). Following this ritual, the goddess herself appears to Emelye as a hunter, with bow and arrow in hand, but she denies Emelye her wish. We see Diana here as a forceful but ultimately uncaring goddess.
In Troilus and Criseyde, we also witness the vengeful Diana. Cassandra, the sister of the hero Troilus, relates the story of Diana releasing the Calydonian Boar to devastate the Greeks (Book V, line 1464). It is Meleager who defeats the boar, with the help of Atalanta (though she is unnamed in Chaucer’s version of the retelling)—Meleager is the ancestor of Diomede, Troilus’ rival in winning Criseyde’s love. Earlier, in Book III of the poem, Troilus swears by Diana among other deities (Book III, line 731). Troilus prays to the gods in the order of their planets’ distance from the Earth according to medieval astronomy: Jupiter, Mars, Phoebus (the Sun), Mercury, and Diana (the Moon). Venus (who comes between the Sun and Mercury) had been prayed to earlier (Windeatt, 2013: 496).
Then in The Parliament of Fowls, a dream vision by Chaucer, the Dreamer sees the temple of Venus and witnesses many broken bows hanging on the wall, representing maidens who have broken their vows to the goddess Diana (lines 281–284). Such imagery demonstrates the potent presence of the moon goddess even while revealing that not everyone remains faithful to her.
Chang’e and Diana are complex goddesses of the moon. In literary and artistic depictions of these two goddesses in the Middle Ages, they are shown to be powerful and beautiful, but also replete with human frailties. We see them full of longing or full of anger, full of loneliness or full of ambition. Even when captured in static forms like statues or paintings, these goddesses seem supple and constantly on the move, in flight or hunting nimbly through the woods. From their celestial realm, these goddesses reached down and captured the imaginations of many a medieval creator.
Benson, Larry D. and F. N. Robinson, eds, The Riverside Chaucer: Third Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
Bynner, Witter, The Jade Mountain (New York: Knopf, 1929).
Cassell, Anthony K. and Victoria Kirkham, eds and trans., Diana’s Hunt (Caccia di Diana): Boccaccio’s First Fiction (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991).
Gao, Yugong, ‘Cranes and People in China: Culture, Science, and Conservation’ (unpublished dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 2001).
Isaacson, Nathaniel, ‘Locating Kexue Xiangsheng (Science Crosstalk) in Relation to the Selective Tradition of Chinese Science Fiction’, Osiris 34.1 (2019), 139-157.
Jiahao, Li, ‘Identifying the Wangjiatai Qin (221 B. C. E.-206 B.C. E.) Bamboo Slip “Yi Divinations” (Yi zhan) as the Guicang’, Contemporary Chinese Thought 44.3 (2013), 42-59.
Mathieu, Rémi, ‘Le Lièvre de la lune dans l’antiquité Chinoise’, Revue de l’histoire des religions 207.4 (1990), 339-365.
Owen, Stephen, ‘The Cultural Tang (650-1020)’, in The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume I: to 1375, ed. Kang-I Sun Chang and Stephen Owen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 286-380.
Pan, Yanlin, ‘Paradigm Shifts, Iconographic Changes: the Moon Goddess Chang’e and Other Beauties in Paintings of the Mid Ming’ (unpublished dissertation, University of California Davis, 2013).
Wang, Eugene Y., ‘Mirror, Moon, and Memory in Eighth-Century China: From Dragon Pond to Lunar Palace’, Cleveland Studies in the History of Art 9 (2005), 42-67.
Weever, Jacqueline de, Chaucer Name Dictionary: A Guide to Astrological, Biblical, Historical, Literary, and Mythological Names in the Works of Geoffrey Chaucer (London: Routledge, 2013).
Windeatt, Barry, Troilus and Criseyde: A New Edition of ‘The Book of Troilus’ (London: Routledge, 2013).
Yang, Lihui and Deming An, Handbook of Chinese Mythology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
Ye, Shuxian, A Mythological Approach to Exploring the Origins of Chinese Civilization (Singapore: Springer, 2002).
This came out earlier this week! Thank you so much to Yale University Press for all their efforts getting it to publication.
By Ayoush Lazikani
In the Middle Ages, the moon was often imagined as a radiant and alluring deity. We will look at medieval literary and artistic depictions of two moon goddesses from different parts of the world: Chang’e and Diana. Both Chang’e and Diana are presented as deeply powerful and immensely beautiful, and they appear in many different contexts.
What follows draws on research from my new book The Medieval Moon: A History of Haunting and Blessing, which studies the moon from a global perspective. (Note: ‘medieval’ is used as shorthand in this article and this book to label the period from c. 500–1600. However, ‘medieval’ is a term that initially developed to describe European history and we should apply it to non-European cultures with care).
Chang’e
Chang’e is known as the Chinese goddess of the moon. There are many stories about her, and she was even a main character in the 2020 Netflix children’s film Over the Moon. But many of these stories are much earlier, dating to the ancient or medieval periods. According to legend, Chang’e drank an elixir of immortality and ascended to the moon. In an early record of her myth, in a divination book of the fifth century BC known as the Guizang, Chang’e steals the elixir of immortality from Xiwangmu, the Queen Mother of the West. In a text known as the Huainanzi, from early in the Han Dynasty (206 BC – AD 220), we are told that Chang’e actually stole the elixir from her husband Yi, who had in turn received it from Xiwangmu. In some versions of Chang’e’s story, she is turned into a toad, perhaps as punishment (Yang and An, 2008: 86–88).
We see an evolution in approaches to Chang’e over time. In the Han Dynasty, there was an emphasis on her immortality at the moment of her ascension to the moon (benyue 奔月). In the Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907), she was associated with solitariness and even loneliness. This is evident in the poetry of Li Bai (701–762), Meng Haoran (689–740), Bai Juyi (772–846), and Li Shangyin (813–858). During the Ming Dynasty (AD 1368–1644), Chang’e became a more secularised figure (see further Pan, 2013: 5 and 9 n. 14; and Kalmer and Zou, 2023). Let us focus on the Tang and Ming Dynasties.
Poet Li Shangyin (813–858), living during the Tang Dynasty, composed a poem about Chang’e. In this poem, he asks Chang’e if she regrets stealing the immortality potion and he imagines her living alone through long and difficult nights (a translation of this poem is available in Bynner, 1929: 75). In this poem, Chang’e suffers from terrible loneliness and perhaps even remorse. This poem humanises the goddess, reminding us that she was once a mortal woman, experiencing the thoughts and emotions that can torment a human soul.
There is also a legend that the traditional piece of music and dance, Skirts of Rainbow, Feather Coats (Nichang yuyi), dating to the Tang Dynasty, was composed by Emperor Xuanzong (685–762) after the moon goddess Chang’e commanded him to journey to the moon. While on the moon, he encountered this music and then wrote it down from memory when he awoke from his lunar vision (see further Owen, 2010: 310–311; and Isaacson, 2019: 152).
Moving forward in history, there is a painting on a fan dating to 1350–1445, from the Yuan (1279–1368) or early Ming Dynasty, which shows Chang’e beneath a large tree and abundant clouds, with the full moon shimmering close by her. This fan is now housed at the Art Institute of Chicago. The painting uses soft greens and blues, and Chang’e wears a long flowing gown with blue lining, her hair elegantly tied up with what seems to be a hat on her head. The large tree bows down protectively over the goddess, and she seems to gently touch it. In this image, Chang’e almost melds into the landscape, becoming part of all that surrounds her.
Similarly, in a hanging scroll (now housed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art), from the Ming Dynasty, we see Chang’e looking strong and beguiling. Her hair is tied up with a red ribbon, and she wears a flowing gown, again with blue lining. She holds a cassia branch, a recurring feature of moon-scenes, and the cassia branch matches in colour with the blue lining on her gown. With the cassia branch in hand, she looks softly upwards and seems to almost levitate, perhaps recalling her ascension to the moon. The scroll also includes a poem by Tang Yin (1470–1524), who says that the goddess dwells in the Moon Palace among phoenixes and cranes—both birds associated with immortality (see further Gao, 2001; and Ye, 2002: 437–440).
In another artefact of the Ming Dynasty, a statue made of bronze and gold, dating to c. 1600 (now in the Vanderbilt University Museum of Art), Chang’e is again seen as a commanding, attractive, and graceful figure. Again, she wears her hair up, and is seen in a flowing gown. Crucially, she holds a rabbit or hare—this rabbit or hare was seen as an inhabitant of the moon and often as a companion of Chang’e. As she holds the rabbit or hare, she looks out inquisitively at the viewer, returning our gaze curiously and perhaps even defiantly, so that human and goddess contemplate each other. A piece of wood has been placed inside the statue, at an unidentified time after the statue was made. This offering may echo Buddhist traditions, and thus also demonstrates the interaction between Buddhism and Daoism (see further Mathieu, 1990; Wang, 2005; and Kalmer and Zou, 2023).
Diana
Diana’s association with the moon is a deep and lasting one in the medieval world. Diana is the Roman name for the goddess; her Greek equivalent is Artemis. In Cornish writer John Trevisa’s (fl. 1342–1402) On the Properties of Things, he says that the moon is “‘icleped Diana, goddess of woodis & of groves’ (called Diana, goddess of woods and of groves).” John Trevisa’s words are echoed in the painting Diana the Huntress by Giampietrino (c. 1495–1553), now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where we see a nude Diana positioned with bow and arrow in hand, a stag behind her. Elsewhere in the English language, the moon is called ‘Lucina’, who may be identified with Diana. Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400) refers to “Lucina the sheene” (Lucina the bright) in The Franklin’s Tale (one of the Canterbury Tales, line 1045), and in the epic and tragic poem Troilus and Criseyde (Book IV, line 1591).
The name ‘Diana’ specifically (not Lucina) is invoked in many medieval sources. In a thirteenth-century English saint’s life known as St Juliana, we see the pagans pray to the “‘drihfule godd’ (noble god) Apollo and ‘the deorewurthe Diane’ (the precious Diana).” In this text, the invocations to Apollo and Diana are portrayed in a negative light, reflecting the limited perspectives of the pagans who do not know the ‘true’ Christian God. The invocation is in particular spoken by Affricanus, the violent and cruel father of the saint Juliana, and we later see him order horrific tortures on his own daughter.
There are nonetheless more positive, affirming depictions of Diana. One of the early works of Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375) is known as Caccia di Diana (Diana’s Hunt) and tells the story of the goddess Diana gathering various women together for a hunt in the woods. The narrator of this story is a stag who is later transformed into a man. As the story begins, the narrator hears a spirit calling the women together, saying that the goddess Diana has selected them to join her in Parthenope (Canto 1, line 8). Diana is a dominant goddess: she orders the women to bathe and then clothe themselves in gowns of purple, garlanded with olive leaves and flowers (Canto 2, lines 29–30). Diana arranges the women into four teams of hunters, and provides them with all sorts of weapons and hunting animals. After a successful hunt, one of the ladies rebels against Diana and says that the women no longer want to follow her. Diana leaves in a rage, returning to the heaven from which she came (Canto 16, lines 55–58). The women then call on Venus, goddess of love. In this poem, we see a powerful and agile goddess in Diana, but she is at last supplanted by the graceful and tender Venus.
Boccaccio was a major source for Chaucer, and Diana has a clear presence in the English writer’s work too. In Chaucer’s The Knight’s Tale we see Diana’s Temple, and in it is a statue of the goddess: we see her poised on a hart with small hounds around her, and a waxing moon beneath her feet. She wears yellowish green and holds a bow and arrow (lines 2075–2082). (Diana’s temple also features in The Franklin’s Tale, lines 1387–1394). In The Knight’s Tale, the young and vulnerable girl Emelye prays to Diana, asking to remain chaste. She follows a careful ritual involving incense and mead (2272–2294), and the description is based on Boccaccio’s Teseida (VII 71–76). Following this ritual, the goddess herself appears to Emelye as a hunter, with bow and arrow in hand, but she denies Emelye her wish. We see Diana here as a forceful but ultimately uncaring goddess.
In Troilus and Criseyde, we also witness the vengeful Diana. Cassandra, the sister of the hero Troilus, relates the story of Diana releasing the Calydonian Boar to devastate the Greeks (Book V, line 1464). It is Meleager who defeats the boar, with the help of Atalanta (though she is unnamed in Chaucer’s version of the retelling)—Meleager is the ancestor of Diomede, Troilus’ rival in winning Criseyde’s love. Earlier, in Book III of the poem, Troilus swears by Diana among other deities (Book III, line 731). Troilus prays to the gods in the order of their planets’ distance from the Earth according to medieval astronomy: Jupiter, Mars, Phoebus (the Sun), Mercury, and Diana (the Moon). Venus (who comes between the Sun and Mercury) had been prayed to earlier (Windeatt, 2013: 496).
Then in The Parliament of Fowls, a dream vision by Chaucer, the Dreamer sees the temple of Venus and witnesses many broken bows hanging on the wall, representing maidens who have broken their vows to the goddess Diana (lines 281–284). Such imagery demonstrates the potent presence of the moon goddess even while revealing that not everyone remains faithful to her.
Chang’e and Diana are complex goddesses of the moon. In literary and artistic depictions of these two goddesses in the Middle Ages, they are shown to be powerful and beautiful, but also replete with human frailties. We see them full of longing or full of anger, full of loneliness or full of ambition. Even when captured in static forms like statues or paintings, these goddesses seem supple and constantly on the move, in flight or hunting nimbly through the woods. From their celestial realm, these goddesses reached down and captured the imaginations of many a medieval creator.
Ayoush Lazikani is a lecturer at the University of Oxford, where she specializes in medieval literature. Her new book is The Medieval Moon: A History of Haunting and Blessing, published by Yale University Press.
You can also get a copy from Amazon.com, Amazon.ca or Amazon.co.uk
Sources
Benson, Larry D. and F. N. Robinson, eds, The Riverside Chaucer: Third Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
Bynner, Witter, The Jade Mountain (New York: Knopf, 1929).
Cassell, Anthony K. and Victoria Kirkham, eds and trans., Diana’s Hunt (Caccia di Diana): Boccaccio’s First Fiction (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991).
Gao, Yugong, ‘Cranes and People in China: Culture, Science, and Conservation’ (unpublished dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 2001).
Isaacson, Nathaniel, ‘Locating Kexue Xiangsheng (Science Crosstalk) in Relation to the Selective Tradition of Chinese Science Fiction’, Osiris 34.1 (2019), 139-157.
Jiahao, Li, ‘Identifying the Wangjiatai Qin (221 B. C. E.-206 B.C. E.) Bamboo Slip “Yi Divinations” (Yi zhan) as the Guicang’, Contemporary Chinese Thought 44.3 (2013), 42-59.
Kalmer, Thomas, and Yuyang Zou, ‘Chang’e, the Moon Goddess’, https://exhibitions.library.vanderbilt.edu/hart3164w-art-budhist-relic/chang-e-the-moon-goddess/ (2023).
Konieczny, Peter, ‘The Moon in the Middle Ages’, https://www.medievalists.net/2023/12/moon-middle-ages/ [accessed 2nd July 2025].
Mathieu, Rémi, ‘Le Lièvre de la lune dans l’antiquité Chinoise’, Revue de l’histoire des religions 207.4 (1990), 339-365.
Owen, Stephen, ‘The Cultural Tang (650-1020)’, in The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume I: to 1375, ed. Kang-I Sun Chang and Stephen Owen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 286-380.
Pan, Yanlin, ‘Paradigm Shifts, Iconographic Changes: the Moon Goddess Chang’e and Other Beauties in Paintings of the Mid Ming’ (unpublished dissertation, University of California Davis, 2013).
Wang, Eugene Y., ‘Mirror, Moon, and Memory in Eighth-Century China: From Dragon Pond to Lunar Palace’, Cleveland Studies in the History of Art 9 (2005), 42-67.
Weever, Jacqueline de, ‘Chaucer’s Moon: Cinthia, Diana, Latona, Lucina, Proserpina’, Names 34.2 (1986), 154-174.
Weever, Jacqueline de, Chaucer Name Dictionary: A Guide to Astrological, Biblical, Historical, Literary, and Mythological Names in the Works of Geoffrey Chaucer (London: Routledge, 2013).
Windeatt, Barry, Troilus and Criseyde: A New Edition of ‘The Book of Troilus’ (London: Routledge, 2013).
Yang, Lihui and Deming An, Handbook of Chinese Mythology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
Ye, Shuxian, A Mythological Approach to Exploring the Origins of Chinese Civilization (Singapore: Springer, 2002).
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