“Henry the Sixth, in infant bands crown’d King Of France and England, did this king succeed; Whose state so many had the managing, That they lost France and made his England bleed” ~ William Shakespeare, Henry V, Epilogue
By the time the embers of the fire that burned Joan of Arc were tossed into the Seine at Rouen in 1431, the Hundred Years War was already approaching its eventual conclusion. However, St Joan’s deeds had far less impact on the outcome of that conflict than has been popularly perceived – as discussed in the previous article. As with many events in history, the conclusion of the Hundred Years War cannot be easily boiled down to a single cause (or even a single incident), but rather it was an entire array of factors that brought about the final French victory. Overall, the end of the war came about due to successful political and military reforms effectively implemented by their shrewd monarch, Charles VII, and a series of devastating blunders and mismanagement by his counterpart across the English Channel, Henry VI, and his fractured government.
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England’s political troubles began as a direct result of the untimely and unexpected death of Henry V in 1422, who left behind the infant Henry VI – not even a year old then – to carry on his legacy. The reins of power were taken up by Henry’s two younger brothers – John of Bedford, as the King’s Regent in France, and Humphrey of Gloucester, who ruled as regent in England. They were supported by a motley collection of other English nobles, minor gentry, and professional soldiers who filled the vacuum left by the late King’s sudden death as best they could.
However, cracks began to develop as deep-rooted family rivalries among various English nobles (like that between the Dukes of York and the Beauforts) rose to the surface in the absence of a strong unifying leader. John of Bedford still managed to keep a firm grip on his brother’s conquests, even after the significant setbacks resulting from the French rally. The same year Joan was burned at the stake, the nine-year-old Henry VI was crowned in Paris as King of France – the only English king ever to be so. However, the death-knell for Lancastrian France truly sounded in 1435, when Duke John died while attending the Congress of Arras. Mere days later, England’s crucial Burgundian allies made peace with their Valois brethren and switched sides. Simultaneously deprived of one of their last competent statesmen and betrayed by their former allies, there stood little chance for the continued survival of English fortunes in France. Slowly, but steadily, English possessions began to fall.
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The architect of French political and military success was none other than the masterfully shrewd Charles VII. Known as “the Wise” by his countrymen and “the Spider” by his foes, the initially timid and duplicitous Charles had not seemed like the type to bring about a final victory. However, he possessed an incredibly keen grasp of realpolitik and a remarkably forward-thinking instinct for reform.
His first target for reform was the French military. Initiating a programme of structural and technological modernization, Charles transformed the French army from their outdated and localized feudal models to a professionally organized force that possessed a unified chain of command that led directly to the Crown. These compagnies d’ordonnance combined all the advantages of combined-arms tactics that the English had once employed to such great effect with a new technology – namely, gunpowder artillery. While firearms were nothing new to the Hundred Years War (even Edward III had deployed a primitive cannon at Crécy), Charles VII sought out and employed some of the finest gunsmiths and engineers of his day. Under the direction of the genius Jean Bureau and his brother Gaspard, this corps of gunners became the first real professional artillery train in Western Europe. By contrast, the English still conservatively relied on their signature ability to maneuver in the field and the firepower of their archers – qualities that were quickly neutralized by the steady grinding of French siege assault and capture of vital territories.
On the other side of the English Channel, Charles’ counterpart could not have been more different. Henry VI did not even come of age to rule in his own right until 1437, and immediately it became apparent that he was a far cry from his father. Docile, pious, possibly mentally handicapped, and easily dominated by those around him, this new Henry was not even remotely equipped to lead a desperate nation at war. His desire for peace lead him into making another devastating diplomatic blunder when he abandoned Maine in return for the hand of Charles’ niece, Margaret of Anjou (with whom young Henry was infatuated). The nobility and commons of England were scandalized by this apparent craven surrender on the part of their King. Their disgust would form the basis of a groundswell of unrest that would plague him and his realm for many years after.
In the meantime, English arms continued to be outdone in France at the very game they had begun. In 1450, the last English army in Normandy was crushed at Formigny. With that, the ancient home of the Anglo-Norman kings was finally restored to French hands for good. Three years later, the last English army in France, met a bloody end as they were shot to pieces by the Bureau brothers’ artillery pieces at the Battle of Castillon.
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While many historians like to end the Hundred Years War at this point officially, the reality in events like this is never quite so tidy. Future English kings, most notably the Yorkist Edward IV and a young Henry VIII, would lead expeditions into France. However, neither would accomplish much of anything other than hollow posturing and mere looting. A vestigial remnant of English France would remain in the Pas de Calais until it fell to a lightning assault by the Duke of Guise in 1558. And with that, English France was finally consigned to the dustbin of history.
Dr. Andrew Latham is a professor of political science at Macalester College in Saint Paul, Minnesota. He is the author, most recently, of a monograph entitled Medieval Sovereignty, to be published in 2020 by ARC Humanities Press. You can visit Andrew’s website at www.aalatham.com or follow Andrew on Twitter @aalatham
Capt Rand Lee Brown II is a commissioned officer in the United States Marine Corps currently assigned to Marine Forces Reserve. Holding a Master of Arts degree in Military History from Norwich University with a focus on medieval warfare, Capt Brown has written on military history for a variety of forums, including the Marine Corps Gazette and Medievalists.net.
By Andrew Latham and Rand Lee Brown II
“Henry the Sixth, in infant bands crown’d King
Of France and England, did this king succeed;
Whose state so many had the managing,
That they lost France and made his England bleed”
~ William Shakespeare, Henry V, Epilogue
By the time the embers of the fire that burned Joan of Arc were tossed into the Seine at Rouen in 1431, the Hundred Years War was already approaching its eventual conclusion. However, St Joan’s deeds had far less impact on the outcome of that conflict than has been popularly perceived – as discussed in the previous article. As with many events in history, the conclusion of the Hundred Years War cannot be easily boiled down to a single cause (or even a single incident), but rather it was an entire array of factors that brought about the final French victory. Overall, the end of the war came about due to successful political and military reforms effectively implemented by their shrewd monarch, Charles VII, and a series of devastating blunders and mismanagement by his counterpart across the English Channel, Henry VI, and his fractured government.
England’s political troubles began as a direct result of the untimely and unexpected death of Henry V in 1422, who left behind the infant Henry VI – not even a year old then – to carry on his legacy. The reins of power were taken up by Henry’s two younger brothers – John of Bedford, as the King’s Regent in France, and Humphrey of Gloucester, who ruled as regent in England. They were supported by a motley collection of other English nobles, minor gentry, and professional soldiers who filled the vacuum left by the late King’s sudden death as best they could.
However, cracks began to develop as deep-rooted family rivalries among various English nobles (like that between the Dukes of York and the Beauforts) rose to the surface in the absence of a strong unifying leader. John of Bedford still managed to keep a firm grip on his brother’s conquests, even after the significant setbacks resulting from the French rally. The same year Joan was burned at the stake, the nine-year-old Henry VI was crowned in Paris as King of France – the only English king ever to be so. However, the death-knell for Lancastrian France truly sounded in 1435, when Duke John died while attending the Congress of Arras. Mere days later, England’s crucial Burgundian allies made peace with their Valois brethren and switched sides. Simultaneously deprived of one of their last competent statesmen and betrayed by their former allies, there stood little chance for the continued survival of English fortunes in France. Slowly, but steadily, English possessions began to fall.
The architect of French political and military success was none other than the masterfully shrewd Charles VII. Known as “the Wise” by his countrymen and “the Spider” by his foes, the initially timid and duplicitous Charles had not seemed like the type to bring about a final victory. However, he possessed an incredibly keen grasp of realpolitik and a remarkably forward-thinking instinct for reform.
His first target for reform was the French military. Initiating a programme of structural and technological modernization, Charles transformed the French army from their outdated and localized feudal models to a professionally organized force that possessed a unified chain of command that led directly to the Crown. These compagnies d’ordonnance combined all the advantages of combined-arms tactics that the English had once employed to such great effect with a new technology – namely, gunpowder artillery. While firearms were nothing new to the Hundred Years War (even Edward III had deployed a primitive cannon at Crécy), Charles VII sought out and employed some of the finest gunsmiths and engineers of his day. Under the direction of the genius Jean Bureau and his brother Gaspard, this corps of gunners became the first real professional artillery train in Western Europe. By contrast, the English still conservatively relied on their signature ability to maneuver in the field and the firepower of their archers – qualities that were quickly neutralized by the steady grinding of French siege assault and capture of vital territories.
On the other side of the English Channel, Charles’ counterpart could not have been more different. Henry VI did not even come of age to rule in his own right until 1437, and immediately it became apparent that he was a far cry from his father. Docile, pious, possibly mentally handicapped, and easily dominated by those around him, this new Henry was not even remotely equipped to lead a desperate nation at war. His desire for peace lead him into making another devastating diplomatic blunder when he abandoned Maine in return for the hand of Charles’ niece, Margaret of Anjou (with whom young Henry was infatuated). The nobility and commons of England were scandalized by this apparent craven surrender on the part of their King. Their disgust would form the basis of a groundswell of unrest that would plague him and his realm for many years after.
In the meantime, English arms continued to be outdone in France at the very game they had begun. In 1450, the last English army in Normandy was crushed at Formigny. With that, the ancient home of the Anglo-Norman kings was finally restored to French hands for good. Three years later, the last English army in France, met a bloody end as they were shot to pieces by the Bureau brothers’ artillery pieces at the Battle of Castillon.
While many historians like to end the Hundred Years War at this point officially, the reality in events like this is never quite so tidy. Future English kings, most notably the Yorkist Edward IV and a young Henry VIII, would lead expeditions into France. However, neither would accomplish much of anything other than hollow posturing and mere looting. A vestigial remnant of English France would remain in the Pas de Calais until it fell to a lightning assault by the Duke of Guise in 1558. And with that, English France was finally consigned to the dustbin of history.
Dr. Andrew Latham is a professor of political science at Macalester College in Saint Paul, Minnesota. He is the author, most recently, of a monograph entitled Medieval Sovereignty, to be published in 2020 by ARC Humanities Press. You can visit Andrew’s website at www.aalatham.com or follow Andrew on Twitter @aalatham
Capt Rand Lee Brown II is a commissioned officer in the United States Marine Corps currently assigned to Marine Forces Reserve. Holding a Master of Arts degree in Military History from Norwich University with a focus on medieval warfare, Capt Brown has written on military history for a variety of forums, including the Marine Corps Gazette and Medievalists.net.
Click here to read more Medieval Geopolitics
Nicolle, David. The Fall of English France 1449-1453 (Osprey Publishing, 2012)
Top Image: The death of John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury at the Battle of Castillon from Vigilles de Charles VII by Martial d’Auvergne (1484)
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