A new study is challenging long-held beliefs about the economy of Anglo-Saxon Northumbria. Researchers have found that the early medieval kingdom continued to possess substantial quantities of silver and gold even as its rulers abandoned silver coinage in favour of copper.
The research, carried out by Dr John Luke Carson of Durham University and published in the journal Antiquity, suggests that Northumbria’s transition to copper-alloy coins during the ninth century was a deliberate economic decision rather than a consequence of poverty or Viking raids.
Across much of early medieval Western Europe, silver was the principal metal used to produce coins. Northumbria, a kingdom extending across much of what is now northern England and southern Scotland, followed this practice during the eighth century. However, its coinage underwent a remarkable transformation during the following century.
During the reign of King Eanred, the silver content of Northumbrian coins declined substantially. Coins that had previously contained up to 40% silver were reduced to a maximum of 10% by the later part of his reign, around 830–841. During the second reign of his successor, Aethelred II (844–849), silver disappeared from the regular coinage altogether.
The resulting copper-alloy coins, commonly known today as stycas, were unusual in early medieval Western Europe, where coins generally retained at least some precious-metal content. Although the term styca is widely used by modern historians, Carson notes that it was not applied to these coins until the late seventeenth century. Their original name remains unknown.
A few precious-metal coins continued to be produced, including a silver penny of Eanred and a gold solidus of Archbishop Wigmund of York. However, these appear to have been exceptional issues rather than currency intended for general circulation.
Did Viking Raids Cause a Silver Shortage?
Gold object, possibly a terminal or aestel (credit: copyright York Museums Trust, CC BY-SA 4.0)
Historians have long debated why Northumbria abandoned silver coinage. One explanation has been that the kingdom was experiencing severe economic difficulties, brought about by political instability, payments to neighbouring kingdoms and repeated Viking attacks.
The famous Viking raid on Lindisfarne in 793 marked the beginning of a period of Scandinavian attacks on Northumbria. Some historians have suggested that these raids disrupted trade and depleted the kingdom’s precious-metal reserves, eventually leaving its rulers unable to produce silver coins.
“Viking raids on Northumbria began in the late eighth century and continued into the ninth”, says Carson. “These could have drained the kingdom of silver, leaving it without the resources needed to produce silver coins. Without this material, the kingdom had to resort to an alternative: copper alloy.”
This interpretation has contributed to a broader picture of ninth-century Northumbria as a kingdom in decline, weakened by internal conflict and external threats before the Viking conquest of 867.
However, other historians have questioned whether the surviving written sources accurately reflect Northumbria’s economic condition. Archaeological and numismatic evidence suggests that the kingdom maintained an organised monetary system, with coins produced under the authority of kings and archbishops.
Carson’s study offers new evidence for this more positive interpretation by examining the availability of precious metals outside the kingdom’s coinage.
Archaeological Finds Reveal Northumbria’s Wealth
Comparison of the eighth- and ninth-century precious-metals evidence (based on Carson 2022: figs. 104 & 105, updated March 2025). All the eighth-century silver objects have gilding. The eighth-century gold-decorated finds are all gilt, except one that is gold leaf, and therefore do not suggest a substantial gold assemblage. There are no certain gold finds and only one likely gold. The ninth century, with substantially more gold finds, therefore appears as a time of greater access to this material.
To investigate whether Northumbria genuinely suffered from a shortage of silver, Carson compiled a database of gold and silver objects discovered within the kingdom and dating to the ninth century. The research brought together evidence from archaeological publications, hoards and the Portable Antiquities Scheme, which records objects discovered by members of the public in England and Wales.
“Investigating the availability of silver is central to understanding the change from silver to copper-alloy coins, as it allows us to see whether it was a forced move”, Carson explains.
The results indicate that silver remained widely available in ninth-century Northumbria. Carson identified 27 securely dated silver finds and another seven likely examples, alongside 23 securely dated objects with silver decoration and eight likely examples.
The Poppleton hoard from York provides particularly striking evidence. It contained eight ninth-century silver strap-ends, decorative fittings attached to the ends of belts or straps. All eight were larger than comparable examples found south of the River Humber, with four significantly larger.
Other objects included silver finger-rings, pins, sword fittings and elaborate metalwork decorated with silver inlay.
Gold was also present, although in smaller quantities than silver. The study identified 11 securely dated gold finds and one likely example, including finger-rings and objects that may have served as decorative terminals or manuscript pointers.
The quality of some of these objects was comparable to luxury metalwork produced elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon England. This suggests that Northumbria possessed both the resources and the skilled craftspeople needed to produce valuable objects.
Comparing these discoveries with evidence from the eighth century, Carson argues that precious metals became more readily available during the ninth century. He interprets this as evidence of economic revival rather than decline.
Although the archaeological discoveries were unevenly distributed, with many concentrated in what is now North and East Yorkshire, the overall evidence challenges the idea that Northumbria was too impoverished to produce silver coins.
Why Choose Copper Instead of Silver?
If Northumbria had access to precious metals, why did its rulers abandon silver coinage? Carson suggests that the decision may have been connected to the economic advantages of producing lower-value coins.
Unlike coinage containing substantial quantities of silver, Northumbria’s copper-alloy currency had little intrinsic precious-metal value. Its acceptance therefore depended heavily on trust in the monetary system and the authorities issuing the coins.
The debased ninth-century coinage circulated in greater quantities than most earlier Northumbrian issues and reached a wider geographical area, particularly the northern and western parts of the kingdom.
“The base-metal coins were of a lower value, allowing them to be used by more people, more frequently”, says Carson.
This would have made coins more suitable for smaller everyday transactions, allowing a greater proportion of the population to participate in the monetary economy.
However, Carson cautions that these benefits may not have been the original reason for debasement. Early medieval rulers could profit from producing additional coins, and increased minting activity offered opportunities to raise revenue.
Carson suggests that increasing revenue from minting may initially have motivated the debasement. Over time, the economic advantages of a lower-value currency may also have become apparent, although the precise motivations remain uncertain.
The widespread circulation of copper-alloy coins may also have strengthened connections between different parts of the kingdom. Carson raises the possibility that a distinctive currency, used by people across Northumbria, helped encourage a shared political and economic identity.
A Sophisticated Early Medieval Economy
The production of copper-alloy coins also required considerable technical expertise and access to materials from beyond Northumbria. Although copper was available within the kingdom, other metals used in its coinage had to be imported. Tin probably came from Cornwall, while zinc may have originated in the region around Aachen in present-day Germany.
Obtaining these materials in sufficient quantities would have required extensive trading connections and potentially significant involvement by Northumbria’s rulers.
The coinage itself also demonstrates continuity in production. Despite changes in its metal content, the basic design remained largely unchanged, with coins typically displaying the name of the issuing king or archbishop on one side and the moneyer responsible for their production on the other.
This consistency, combined with evidence of carefully controlled metal mixtures, suggests an organised and technically capable minting system.
Carson acknowledges that the precise motivations behind Northumbria’s monetary transformation cannot be established conclusively. The decision may have involved several factors, including royal revenue, the expansion of coin circulation and the economic advantages of lower-value currency.
Nevertheless, the findings suggest that the kingdom’s copper coins should no longer be regarded simply as evidence of economic failure.
“The findings bring a new perspective on ninth-century Northumbria and contribute to reshaping our understanding of the kingdom”, Carson concludes. “The kingdom was economically vibrant, possessing both silver and gold; debasement was an active move with economic and social benefits, not one forced by a shortage of silver.”
The article, “Debasement and the production of copper-alloy coins in ninth-century Northumbria,” by John Luke Carson, is published in the journal Antiquity. Click here to read it.
Top Image: Copper-alloy coin of Aethelred II. Credit: copyright York Museums Trust, CC BY-SA 4.0
A new study is challenging long-held beliefs about the economy of Anglo-Saxon Northumbria. Researchers have found that the early medieval kingdom continued to possess substantial quantities of silver and gold even as its rulers abandoned silver coinage in favour of copper.
The research, carried out by Dr John Luke Carson of Durham University and published in the journal Antiquity, suggests that Northumbria’s transition to copper-alloy coins during the ninth century was a deliberate economic decision rather than a consequence of poverty or Viking raids.
Across much of early medieval Western Europe, silver was the principal metal used to produce coins. Northumbria, a kingdom extending across much of what is now northern England and southern Scotland, followed this practice during the eighth century. However, its coinage underwent a remarkable transformation during the following century.
During the reign of King Eanred, the silver content of Northumbrian coins declined substantially. Coins that had previously contained up to 40% silver were reduced to a maximum of 10% by the later part of his reign, around 830–841. During the second reign of his successor, Aethelred II (844–849), silver disappeared from the regular coinage altogether.
The resulting copper-alloy coins, commonly known today as stycas, were unusual in early medieval Western Europe, where coins generally retained at least some precious-metal content. Although the term styca is widely used by modern historians, Carson notes that it was not applied to these coins until the late seventeenth century. Their original name remains unknown.
A few precious-metal coins continued to be produced, including a silver penny of Eanred and a gold solidus of Archbishop Wigmund of York. However, these appear to have been exceptional issues rather than currency intended for general circulation.
Did Viking Raids Cause a Silver Shortage?
Historians have long debated why Northumbria abandoned silver coinage. One explanation has been that the kingdom was experiencing severe economic difficulties, brought about by political instability, payments to neighbouring kingdoms and repeated Viking attacks.
The famous Viking raid on Lindisfarne in 793 marked the beginning of a period of Scandinavian attacks on Northumbria. Some historians have suggested that these raids disrupted trade and depleted the kingdom’s precious-metal reserves, eventually leaving its rulers unable to produce silver coins.
“Viking raids on Northumbria began in the late eighth century and continued into the ninth”, says Carson. “These could have drained the kingdom of silver, leaving it without the resources needed to produce silver coins. Without this material, the kingdom had to resort to an alternative: copper alloy.”
This interpretation has contributed to a broader picture of ninth-century Northumbria as a kingdom in decline, weakened by internal conflict and external threats before the Viking conquest of 867.
However, other historians have questioned whether the surviving written sources accurately reflect Northumbria’s economic condition. Archaeological and numismatic evidence suggests that the kingdom maintained an organised monetary system, with coins produced under the authority of kings and archbishops.
Carson’s study offers new evidence for this more positive interpretation by examining the availability of precious metals outside the kingdom’s coinage.
Archaeological Finds Reveal Northumbria’s Wealth
To investigate whether Northumbria genuinely suffered from a shortage of silver, Carson compiled a database of gold and silver objects discovered within the kingdom and dating to the ninth century. The research brought together evidence from archaeological publications, hoards and the Portable Antiquities Scheme, which records objects discovered by members of the public in England and Wales.
“Investigating the availability of silver is central to understanding the change from silver to copper-alloy coins, as it allows us to see whether it was a forced move”, Carson explains.
The results indicate that silver remained widely available in ninth-century Northumbria. Carson identified 27 securely dated silver finds and another seven likely examples, alongside 23 securely dated objects with silver decoration and eight likely examples.
The Poppleton hoard from York provides particularly striking evidence. It contained eight ninth-century silver strap-ends, decorative fittings attached to the ends of belts or straps. All eight were larger than comparable examples found south of the River Humber, with four significantly larger.
Other objects included silver finger-rings, pins, sword fittings and elaborate metalwork decorated with silver inlay.
Gold was also present, although in smaller quantities than silver. The study identified 11 securely dated gold finds and one likely example, including finger-rings and objects that may have served as decorative terminals or manuscript pointers.
The quality of some of these objects was comparable to luxury metalwork produced elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon England. This suggests that Northumbria possessed both the resources and the skilled craftspeople needed to produce valuable objects.
Comparing these discoveries with evidence from the eighth century, Carson argues that precious metals became more readily available during the ninth century. He interprets this as evidence of economic revival rather than decline.
Although the archaeological discoveries were unevenly distributed, with many concentrated in what is now North and East Yorkshire, the overall evidence challenges the idea that Northumbria was too impoverished to produce silver coins.
Why Choose Copper Instead of Silver?
If Northumbria had access to precious metals, why did its rulers abandon silver coinage? Carson suggests that the decision may have been connected to the economic advantages of producing lower-value coins.
Unlike coinage containing substantial quantities of silver, Northumbria’s copper-alloy currency had little intrinsic precious-metal value. Its acceptance therefore depended heavily on trust in the monetary system and the authorities issuing the coins.
The debased ninth-century coinage circulated in greater quantities than most earlier Northumbrian issues and reached a wider geographical area, particularly the northern and western parts of the kingdom.
“The base-metal coins were of a lower value, allowing them to be used by more people, more frequently”, says Carson.
This would have made coins more suitable for smaller everyday transactions, allowing a greater proportion of the population to participate in the monetary economy.
However, Carson cautions that these benefits may not have been the original reason for debasement. Early medieval rulers could profit from producing additional coins, and increased minting activity offered opportunities to raise revenue.
Carson suggests that increasing revenue from minting may initially have motivated the debasement. Over time, the economic advantages of a lower-value currency may also have become apparent, although the precise motivations remain uncertain.
The widespread circulation of copper-alloy coins may also have strengthened connections between different parts of the kingdom. Carson raises the possibility that a distinctive currency, used by people across Northumbria, helped encourage a shared political and economic identity.
A Sophisticated Early Medieval Economy
The production of copper-alloy coins also required considerable technical expertise and access to materials from beyond Northumbria. Although copper was available within the kingdom, other metals used in its coinage had to be imported. Tin probably came from Cornwall, while zinc may have originated in the region around Aachen in present-day Germany.
Obtaining these materials in sufficient quantities would have required extensive trading connections and potentially significant involvement by Northumbria’s rulers.
The coinage itself also demonstrates continuity in production. Despite changes in its metal content, the basic design remained largely unchanged, with coins typically displaying the name of the issuing king or archbishop on one side and the moneyer responsible for their production on the other.
This consistency, combined with evidence of carefully controlled metal mixtures, suggests an organised and technically capable minting system.
Carson acknowledges that the precise motivations behind Northumbria’s monetary transformation cannot be established conclusively. The decision may have involved several factors, including royal revenue, the expansion of coin circulation and the economic advantages of lower-value currency.
Nevertheless, the findings suggest that the kingdom’s copper coins should no longer be regarded simply as evidence of economic failure.
“The findings bring a new perspective on ninth-century Northumbria and contribute to reshaping our understanding of the kingdom”, Carson concludes. “The kingdom was economically vibrant, possessing both silver and gold; debasement was an active move with economic and social benefits, not one forced by a shortage of silver.”
The article, “Debasement and the production of copper-alloy coins in ninth-century Northumbria,” by John Luke Carson, is published in the journal Antiquity. Click here to read it.
Top Image: Copper-alloy coin of Aethelred II. Credit: copyright York Museums Trust, CC BY-SA 4.0
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