What qualities made someone fit to represent a medieval Islamic ruler abroad? A fascinating tenth-century treatise by Ibn al-Farrāʾ reveals how ambassadors were chosen, tested, and expected to behave in a world shaped by diplomacy, intelligence, and political theatre.
By Milad Sadeghi
In the medieval Islamic world, owing to the continuity of the Sasanian tradition, we encounter books whose principal subject is practical politics and which adopt an advisory form. These books, which are generally influenced by the Sasanian Khwadāy-Nāmag, cover a wide range of topics including how to deal with subjects, the organization of governmental mechanisms, and so forth. Yet among them we come upon a work by Ibn al-Farrāʾ—one of the authors of the fourth century AH / tenth century CE—that is unique in its genre.
Rusul al-Mulūk wa-man yaṣluḥ lil-risāla wa-al-sifār (The Envoys of Kings and Those Who Are Fit for the Mission and Embassy) is undoubtedly one of the rarest and most important written compositions in the entire history of the medieval Islamic world. Its distinctive merit, which sets it apart from all other extant works, is its textual coherence focused on the question of envoys and diplomacy. Moreover, the book clearly demonstrates to us how the two Iranian and ancient Greek traditions shaped the institution of diplomacy in the medieval Islamic world. The whole work is replete with references to the Khwadāy-Nāmag and works by ancient Greek authors such as Aristotle that had been translated into Arabic. Not only does this book enhance our understanding of the issue of diplomacy in the medieval Islamic world, it also reveals how the ancient traditions exerted their influence upon the Islamic world in the Middle Ages.
In this treatise, Ibn al-Farrāʾ explains to us how Muslims in the Islamic world dispatched their ambassadors on missions. What characteristics did these envoys possess? What was the process of selecting an ambassador? What duties was an ambassador expected to perform during his mission?
The letter is like the hand, and the ambassador is like the tongue
The letter is confined to what has been written in it, yet it is the ambassador who breathes life into the letter. The ambassador must reflect deeply upon the content of the text and explain it clearly and effectively to the other party. The ambassador’s conduct and eloquence, together with the letter, can achieve the best result. One must, however, be aware that the ambassador should not interfere with the wording of the letter itself. For if he does, the sender will be compelled to dispatch another person on a subsequent embassy in order to correct the first ambassador’s interpretation. Therefore, the person sent must be truthful; at the same time, he must be capable of expressing harsh matters in the gentlest possible manner. Courage and boldness in conveying important points are essential; hence he must be quick-witted, eloquent, and well-versed in argumentation.
You must be handsome and have a pleasant voice
If an ambassador lacks a well-proportioned physique, a beautiful countenance, and a clear, resonant voice, he will appear insignificant in the eyes of the people. His good reputation and affiliation with an illustrious family are of the utmost importance, because in reality the ambassador is the embodiment of his state. A distinguished name gains entry, yet it is the one who is more handsome who is accepted, and the one who speaks with beauty possesses a great advantage.
Do not fear threats
If the ambassador is neither brave nor wise, the slightest threat or fear will reveal the weakness of his own state. Should an organized army be drawn up before him, he must remain utterly indifferent to everything and show no reaction; rather, he should proceed with complete pride and dignity.
Do not become attached!
One must not yield to the hardships of the journey. If difficulties and tribulations overwhelm the ambassador, in the end he will deliver his message in utter confusion and thus will be unable to discharge his mission properly.
Selecting an Ambassador
When the kings of Iran wished to choose an ambassador, they devised a lengthy process to test him. First they would send him to one of their confidants within their own territory; then they would appoint an inspector to keep him under surveillance, record everything the ambassador observed, and submit a report. After the ambassador returned from his mission, they would compare his statements with those of the inspector; if the two accounts matched, they would recognize his honesty.
The sender’s credibility is known through the ambassador
In Aristotle’s al-Siyāsa al-ʿĀmma it is stated: “O Alexander, if you dispatch an ambassador to the Iranians, know that they believe in good and bad omens. Therefore do not send to them an ambassador whose right eye is defective, for they believe the right eye belongs to the sun and regard it as an evil portent. The ambassador must not scratch his head or point with his hand, or sit down the first time he is invited to be seated. He should neither drink from a stream nor make inquiries in their cities, because they consider such actions improper.”
Greek, Iranian, and Indian Stories
In the book al-Siyāsa al-Khāṣṣa it is related: “O Alexander, choose for the embassy someone who is not privy to your secrets, and instruct him that during negotiations he must not interrupt the other party. Warn him not to drink wine, for the Iranians deceive the ambassador by means of courtesans.”
Ardashir son of Babak said: “How much blood has been shed unjustly by an ambassador, and how many armies have been destroyed on account of an ambassador’s lies!” Therefore, when a king sends an ambassador, he should also dispatch another person after him. These two envoys must not see or recognize each other on the road, lest they collude. The king must wait until the second ambassador’s letter arrives so that he may compare the two reports. Many ambassadors, failing in their task, have fabricated false letters.
The Indians have said that whenever you send an ambassador to a king, he must be proficient in both languages. The ambassador should have a family, so that he is compelled to return; for if he commits an offence, his family will be punished.
On the basis of what has been said, we can clearly discern the dominant presence of the two Iranian and Greek elements—and occasionally even the Indian element—in the conduct of diplomacy in the medieval Islamic world. At the same time, the points made by Ibn al-Farrāʾ can even assist us in understanding the institution of diplomacy and ambassadors in the ancient world, and in this respect they double the importance of this book.
Milad Sadeghi is a historian and researcher at the Archives of the Faculty of Theology at the University of Tehran
Ibn al-Farrāʾ work was edited and published for the first time by the Egyptian researcher and manuscript scholar Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn al-Munajjid, with an introduction by Mohammad Amin, in 1366 AH / 1947 CE by the Lajnat al-Taʾlīf wa-al-Tarjama wa-al-Nashr Press. An English translation by Maria Vaiou in Diplomacy in the Early Islamic World: A Tenth-Century Treatise on Arab–Byzantine Relations, published by I.B. Tauris.
Top Image: Bodleian Library MS. Marsh 458 fol. 30b
What qualities made someone fit to represent a medieval Islamic ruler abroad? A fascinating tenth-century treatise by Ibn al-Farrāʾ reveals how ambassadors were chosen, tested, and expected to behave in a world shaped by diplomacy, intelligence, and political theatre.
By Milad Sadeghi
In the medieval Islamic world, owing to the continuity of the Sasanian tradition, we encounter books whose principal subject is practical politics and which adopt an advisory form. These books, which are generally influenced by the Sasanian Khwadāy-Nāmag, cover a wide range of topics including how to deal with subjects, the organization of governmental mechanisms, and so forth. Yet among them we come upon a work by Ibn al-Farrāʾ—one of the authors of the fourth century AH / tenth century CE—that is unique in its genre.
Rusul al-Mulūk wa-man yaṣluḥ lil-risāla wa-al-sifār (The Envoys of Kings and Those Who Are Fit for the Mission and Embassy) is undoubtedly one of the rarest and most important written compositions in the entire history of the medieval Islamic world. Its distinctive merit, which sets it apart from all other extant works, is its textual coherence focused on the question of envoys and diplomacy. Moreover, the book clearly demonstrates to us how the two Iranian and ancient Greek traditions shaped the institution of diplomacy in the medieval Islamic world. The whole work is replete with references to the Khwadāy-Nāmag and works by ancient Greek authors such as Aristotle that had been translated into Arabic. Not only does this book enhance our understanding of the issue of diplomacy in the medieval Islamic world, it also reveals how the ancient traditions exerted their influence upon the Islamic world in the Middle Ages.
In this treatise, Ibn al-Farrāʾ explains to us how Muslims in the Islamic world dispatched their ambassadors on missions. What characteristics did these envoys possess? What was the process of selecting an ambassador? What duties was an ambassador expected to perform during his mission?
The letter is like the hand, and the ambassador is like the tongue
The letter is confined to what has been written in it, yet it is the ambassador who breathes life into the letter. The ambassador must reflect deeply upon the content of the text and explain it clearly and effectively to the other party. The ambassador’s conduct and eloquence, together with the letter, can achieve the best result. One must, however, be aware that the ambassador should not interfere with the wording of the letter itself. For if he does, the sender will be compelled to dispatch another person on a subsequent embassy in order to correct the first ambassador’s interpretation. Therefore, the person sent must be truthful; at the same time, he must be capable of expressing harsh matters in the gentlest possible manner. Courage and boldness in conveying important points are essential; hence he must be quick-witted, eloquent, and well-versed in argumentation.
You must be handsome and have a pleasant voice
If an ambassador lacks a well-proportioned physique, a beautiful countenance, and a clear, resonant voice, he will appear insignificant in the eyes of the people. His good reputation and affiliation with an illustrious family are of the utmost importance, because in reality the ambassador is the embodiment of his state. A distinguished name gains entry, yet it is the one who is more handsome who is accepted, and the one who speaks with beauty possesses a great advantage.
Do not fear threats
If the ambassador is neither brave nor wise, the slightest threat or fear will reveal the weakness of his own state. Should an organized army be drawn up before him, he must remain utterly indifferent to everything and show no reaction; rather, he should proceed with complete pride and dignity.
Do not become attached!
One must not yield to the hardships of the journey. If difficulties and tribulations overwhelm the ambassador, in the end he will deliver his message in utter confusion and thus will be unable to discharge his mission properly.
Selecting an Ambassador
When the kings of Iran wished to choose an ambassador, they devised a lengthy process to test him. First they would send him to one of their confidants within their own territory; then they would appoint an inspector to keep him under surveillance, record everything the ambassador observed, and submit a report. After the ambassador returned from his mission, they would compare his statements with those of the inspector; if the two accounts matched, they would recognize his honesty.
The sender’s credibility is known through the ambassador
In Aristotle’s al-Siyāsa al-ʿĀmma it is stated: “O Alexander, if you dispatch an ambassador to the Iranians, know that they believe in good and bad omens. Therefore do not send to them an ambassador whose right eye is defective, for they believe the right eye belongs to the sun and regard it as an evil portent. The ambassador must not scratch his head or point with his hand, or sit down the first time he is invited to be seated. He should neither drink from a stream nor make inquiries in their cities, because they consider such actions improper.”
Greek, Iranian, and Indian Stories
In the book al-Siyāsa al-Khāṣṣa it is related: “O Alexander, choose for the embassy someone who is not privy to your secrets, and instruct him that during negotiations he must not interrupt the other party. Warn him not to drink wine, for the Iranians deceive the ambassador by means of courtesans.”
Ardashir son of Babak said: “How much blood has been shed unjustly by an ambassador, and how many armies have been destroyed on account of an ambassador’s lies!” Therefore, when a king sends an ambassador, he should also dispatch another person after him. These two envoys must not see or recognize each other on the road, lest they collude. The king must wait until the second ambassador’s letter arrives so that he may compare the two reports. Many ambassadors, failing in their task, have fabricated false letters.
The Indians have said that whenever you send an ambassador to a king, he must be proficient in both languages. The ambassador should have a family, so that he is compelled to return; for if he commits an offence, his family will be punished.
On the basis of what has been said, we can clearly discern the dominant presence of the two Iranian and Greek elements—and occasionally even the Indian element—in the conduct of diplomacy in the medieval Islamic world. At the same time, the points made by Ibn al-Farrāʾ can even assist us in understanding the institution of diplomacy and ambassadors in the ancient world, and in this respect they double the importance of this book.
Milad Sadeghi is a historian and researcher at the Archives of the Faculty of Theology at the University of Tehran
Ibn al-Farrāʾ work was edited and published for the first time by the Egyptian researcher and manuscript scholar Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn al-Munajjid, with an introduction by Mohammad Amin, in 1366 AH / 1947 CE by the Lajnat al-Taʾlīf wa-al-Tarjama wa-al-Nashr Press. An English translation by Maria Vaiou in Diplomacy in the Early Islamic World: A Tenth-Century Treatise on Arab–Byzantine Relations, published by I.B. Tauris.
Top Image: Bodleian Library MS. Marsh 458 fol. 30b
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