For centuries, medieval Europeans used material from ancient Egyptian mummies as medicine. Now, a new scientific study has uncovered chemical evidence that could help explain one of the more curious claims found in medieval medical texts: that Egyptian mummies contained aloe.
Researchers at Marburg University in Germany have identified compounds associated with aloe in ancient Egyptian embalming material, potentially establishing a connection between mummification practices and medical knowledge transmitted through the Middle Ages.
The findings appear in a study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Combining modern chemical analysis with Egyptology and the history of pharmacy, the researchers examined 24 historical objects from university and museum collections.
Why Medieval Europeans Used Egyptian Mummies as Medicine
British Library MS Egerton 747, fol. 60v
During the late Middle Ages and early modern period, European medicine included a substance known as Mumia vera aegyptiaca, a preparation associated with Egyptian mummies and their embalming materials. It could be obtained from mummy remains, substances used in their preservation, or products traded as medicinal preparations.
Medieval medical writers also associated mummy material with aloe, a plant substance known for its medicinal applications. However, historians have questioned whether these references reflected genuine knowledge of ancient Egyptian embalming practices.
By the Middle Ages, much of the practical knowledge surrounding Egyptian mummification had been lost. Some scholars therefore believed that medieval references to aloe in mummy material were speculative, perhaps influenced by biblical descriptions of burial practices. The new research suggests that these medieval associations may have had a historical basis.
“This finding is significant for research for two reasons: Until now, aloe had not been identified as a component of ancient Egyptian embalming materials through molecular analysis,” explains Tanja Pommerening, who heads Germany’s only Institute for the History of Pharmacy and Medicine at Marburg University. “At the same time, aloe was linked to mummy material used as medicine in later centuries, particularly in medieval texts. It was previously assumed that the authors of these texts were speculating and relying on biblical passages (e.g., John 19:39), as knowledge about ancient Egyptian embalming had been lost. The new findings suggest that this association may have deeper historical roots.”
Finding Aloe in a 2,700-Year-Old Mummy
The researchers examined a mummified skull preserved in the Zoological Collection of Marburg University. Radiocarbon dating established that the skull came from the eighth century BCE, making it approximately 2,700 years old.
Chemical analysis revealed compounds associated with aloe. Similar substances were also detected in an eighteenth-century preparation of Mumia vera aegyptiaca originating from the Löwen Pharmacy in Offenbach am Main, now preserved in the German Pharmacy Museum in Heidelberg. This marks the first time that compounds associated with aloe have been identified through molecular analysis in ancient Egyptian embalming material.
The distinction between different historical meanings of aloe is important. In medieval and earlier texts, the term could refer to plants of the genus Aloe, but it could also describe agarwood, an aromatic material obtained from trees of the genus Aquilaria. The newly identified compounds point specifically towards products derived from Aloe rather than agarwood.
The researchers also returned to ancient Egyptian written sources, examining a substance called ꜥnḫ-jm.j. Some descriptions of its properties and uses suggest that it might have been aloe or a related plant extract, although the identification remains uncertain.
The discovery does not establish that aloe was a common ingredient in Egyptian mummification. Compounds associated with it were found in only two of the 24 objects examined, suggesting that its use may have depended on particular embalming traditions, historical periods, or access to raw materials.
What Was in Medieval Mummy Medicine?
The study also offers new insights into the composition of Mumia vera aegyptiaca, which circulated as a medicinal substance in late medieval and early modern Europe. Although references to mummy-based remedies survive in historical medical literature, the precise composition of the preparations sold and used by European practitioners has remained difficult to establish.
The researchers found considerable differences between historical samples. Several contained chemical compounds characteristic of aged conifer resins, substances already known to have been used in Egyptian embalming.
The team also investigated whether any of these historical preparations possessed anti-infective properties. An extract from the Wigand Medicinal Collection in Marburg showed a moderate protective effect against influenza-related cell damage in laboratory cell cultures.
However, the main isolated compound, 7-oxodehydroabietic acid, did not produce the same effect when tested separately. The researchers therefore could not identify which ingredients were responsible.
These laboratory findings do not demonstrate that mummy-based medicines were effective against influenza in humans. Nevertheless, historical texts indicate that such remedies were used to treat severe cold symptoms, including headaches, coughing, sore throats, and dizziness.
Modern Science Meets Medieval Medical History
Beyond the history of medicine, the study demonstrates how chemical analysis can help researchers investigate objects whose origins have become uncertain. Using a technique known as untargeted metabolomics, supported by computational and machine-learning methods, the researchers compared the chemical fingerprints of historical specimens in the German Pharmacy Museum.
They discovered striking similarities between a mummified head and a separately catalogued powder sample. Although surviving museum records do not establish a relationship between the objects, their chemical compositions suggest that they may once have shared a material or historical connection. Such techniques could eventually help museums reconstruct the histories of objects whose original associations have been lost.
For historians of medieval medicine, the findings are particularly interesting because they demonstrate how modern scientific techniques can help reassess medical claims preserved in texts written many centuries after the practices they describe.
Rather than dismissing medieval references to aloe and Egyptian mummies as speculation, researchers now have chemical evidence suggesting that at least some of these associations may reflect genuine characteristics of ancient embalming materials. This does not prove that medieval writers possessed accurate knowledge of Egyptian mummification, but it provides a new reason to investigate how such information might have been transmitted.
“In the long term, we aim to establish a research approach that combines historical written sources, archaeological objects, and modern natural product analysis,” explains Raphael Reher from the Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology at Marburg University. “Our goal is not only to analyze the chemical composition of ancient medicines and embalming materials, but also to gain a deeper understanding of their production, use, historical transmission, and cultural context.”
The research offers a new perspective on the relationship between ancient Egyptian practices and medieval European medicine, showing how substances used to preserve the dead thousands of years ago may have influenced the medical traditions of later centuries.
The article, “New molecular and historical evidence on ancient Egyptian embalming,” by Tim Berger, Amira Naimi, Kornelia Hardes, Claudia Sachße, Ricarda Gericke, Michael Marner, Felix Mühlemeyer, Tanja Pommerening and Raphael Reher, is published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. Click here to access it.
For centuries, medieval Europeans used material from ancient Egyptian mummies as medicine. Now, a new scientific study has uncovered chemical evidence that could help explain one of the more curious claims found in medieval medical texts: that Egyptian mummies contained aloe.
Researchers at Marburg University in Germany have identified compounds associated with aloe in ancient Egyptian embalming material, potentially establishing a connection between mummification practices and medical knowledge transmitted through the Middle Ages.
The findings appear in a study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Combining modern chemical analysis with Egyptology and the history of pharmacy, the researchers examined 24 historical objects from university and museum collections.
Why Medieval Europeans Used Egyptian Mummies as Medicine
During the late Middle Ages and early modern period, European medicine included a substance known as Mumia vera aegyptiaca, a preparation associated with Egyptian mummies and their embalming materials. It could be obtained from mummy remains, substances used in their preservation, or products traded as medicinal preparations.
Medieval medical writers also associated mummy material with aloe, a plant substance known for its medicinal applications. However, historians have questioned whether these references reflected genuine knowledge of ancient Egyptian embalming practices.
By the Middle Ages, much of the practical knowledge surrounding Egyptian mummification had been lost. Some scholars therefore believed that medieval references to aloe in mummy material were speculative, perhaps influenced by biblical descriptions of burial practices. The new research suggests that these medieval associations may have had a historical basis.
“This finding is significant for research for two reasons: Until now, aloe had not been identified as a component of ancient Egyptian embalming materials through molecular analysis,” explains Tanja Pommerening, who heads Germany’s only Institute for the History of Pharmacy and Medicine at Marburg University. “At the same time, aloe was linked to mummy material used as medicine in later centuries, particularly in medieval texts. It was previously assumed that the authors of these texts were speculating and relying on biblical passages (e.g., John 19:39), as knowledge about ancient Egyptian embalming had been lost. The new findings suggest that this association may have deeper historical roots.”
Finding Aloe in a 2,700-Year-Old Mummy
The researchers examined a mummified skull preserved in the Zoological Collection of Marburg University. Radiocarbon dating established that the skull came from the eighth century BCE, making it approximately 2,700 years old.
Chemical analysis revealed compounds associated with aloe. Similar substances were also detected in an eighteenth-century preparation of Mumia vera aegyptiaca originating from the Löwen Pharmacy in Offenbach am Main, now preserved in the German Pharmacy Museum in Heidelberg. This marks the first time that compounds associated with aloe have been identified through molecular analysis in ancient Egyptian embalming material.
The distinction between different historical meanings of aloe is important. In medieval and earlier texts, the term could refer to plants of the genus Aloe, but it could also describe agarwood, an aromatic material obtained from trees of the genus Aquilaria. The newly identified compounds point specifically towards products derived from Aloe rather than agarwood.
The researchers also returned to ancient Egyptian written sources, examining a substance called ꜥnḫ-jm.j. Some descriptions of its properties and uses suggest that it might have been aloe or a related plant extract, although the identification remains uncertain.
The discovery does not establish that aloe was a common ingredient in Egyptian mummification. Compounds associated with it were found in only two of the 24 objects examined, suggesting that its use may have depended on particular embalming traditions, historical periods, or access to raw materials.
What Was in Medieval Mummy Medicine?
The study also offers new insights into the composition of Mumia vera aegyptiaca, which circulated as a medicinal substance in late medieval and early modern Europe. Although references to mummy-based remedies survive in historical medical literature, the precise composition of the preparations sold and used by European practitioners has remained difficult to establish.
The researchers found considerable differences between historical samples. Several contained chemical compounds characteristic of aged conifer resins, substances already known to have been used in Egyptian embalming.
The team also investigated whether any of these historical preparations possessed anti-infective properties. An extract from the Wigand Medicinal Collection in Marburg showed a moderate protective effect against influenza-related cell damage in laboratory cell cultures.
However, the main isolated compound, 7-oxodehydroabietic acid, did not produce the same effect when tested separately. The researchers therefore could not identify which ingredients were responsible.
These laboratory findings do not demonstrate that mummy-based medicines were effective against influenza in humans. Nevertheless, historical texts indicate that such remedies were used to treat severe cold symptoms, including headaches, coughing, sore throats, and dizziness.
Modern Science Meets Medieval Medical History
Beyond the history of medicine, the study demonstrates how chemical analysis can help researchers investigate objects whose origins have become uncertain. Using a technique known as untargeted metabolomics, supported by computational and machine-learning methods, the researchers compared the chemical fingerprints of historical specimens in the German Pharmacy Museum.
They discovered striking similarities between a mummified head and a separately catalogued powder sample. Although surviving museum records do not establish a relationship between the objects, their chemical compositions suggest that they may once have shared a material or historical connection. Such techniques could eventually help museums reconstruct the histories of objects whose original associations have been lost.
For historians of medieval medicine, the findings are particularly interesting because they demonstrate how modern scientific techniques can help reassess medical claims preserved in texts written many centuries after the practices they describe.
Rather than dismissing medieval references to aloe and Egyptian mummies as speculation, researchers now have chemical evidence suggesting that at least some of these associations may reflect genuine characteristics of ancient embalming materials. This does not prove that medieval writers possessed accurate knowledge of Egyptian mummification, but it provides a new reason to investigate how such information might have been transmitted.
“In the long term, we aim to establish a research approach that combines historical written sources, archaeological objects, and modern natural product analysis,” explains Raphael Reher from the Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology at Marburg University. “Our goal is not only to analyze the chemical composition of ancient medicines and embalming materials, but also to gain a deeper understanding of their production, use, historical transmission, and cultural context.”
The research offers a new perspective on the relationship between ancient Egyptian practices and medieval European medicine, showing how substances used to preserve the dead thousands of years ago may have influenced the medical traditions of later centuries.
The article, “New molecular and historical evidence on ancient Egyptian embalming,” by Tim Berger, Amira Naimi, Kornelia Hardes, Claudia Sachße, Ricarda Gericke, Michael Marner, Felix Mühlemeyer, Tanja Pommerening and Raphael Reher, is published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. Click here to access it.
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