30 Medieval Empires

Throughout the Middle Ages, empires emerged across Europe, Africa and Asia, some lasting for just a generation while others endured for centuries. Here is our list of 30 medieval empires and the stories of how they rose, expanded and, eventually, fell.

What exactly makes an empire? There was no single model in the Middle Ages. Some were ruled by emperors, while others were governed by caliphs, sultans, kings or even merchant elites. For this list, we use the term broadly for states that expanded beyond their original political heartlands and established authority over multiple territories, peoples or political communities. That includes vast land empires as well as maritime powers and other states that exercised imperial rule without necessarily calling themselves empires.

Byzantium / Eastern Roman Empire (c. 330–1453)

Long after the western half of the Roman Empire had broken apart, the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known today as the Byzantine Empire, continued to flourish. Based in Constantinople, the empire lasted for more than a thousand years. At the height of its power under Emperor Justinian I in the sixth century, it controlled much of the territory surrounding the Mediterranean, including Egypt, North Africa and parts of Italy and Spain.

Byzantium experienced repeated periods of decline and recovery. Constantinople itself was besieged numerous times but proved remarkably difficult to conquer. When the city finally fell to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Byzantine rulers established successor states, and in 1261 they regained Constantinople and restored the empire. Its final defeat came in 1453, when the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II conquered the city.

The Byzantine Empire had an enormous influence on the medieval world, preserving and adapting the political traditions of the Roman Empire while becoming one of the most important centres of Christianity. Its political, religious and cultural influence extended far beyond its borders, particularly into the Balkans and eastern Europe.

Mongol Empire (1206–1368)

After uniting the Mongol peoples, Chinggis Khan (c. 1162–1227) and his successors used their military power to conquer state after state across Eurasia. By the mid-thirteenth century, the Mongols had established the largest contiguous land empire in history, stretching from East Asia into the Middle East and eastern Europe. Its military power was unrivalled, but Mongol rule also facilitated long-distance trade and travel, allowing goods, technologies, people and ideas to move across Eurasia on an extraordinary scale.

The unified Mongol Empire did not last long. Its enormous size and disputes over succession contributed to its division during the second half of the thirteenth century into several major khanates, including the Yuan dynasty in China, the Ilkhanate in the Middle East, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia and the Golden Horde in the western steppe. These successor states continued Mongol rule across much of Eurasia long after the original empire had fragmented.

Republic of Venice (697–1797)

The Most Serene Republic of Venice emerged from communities in the lagoon at the northern end of the Adriatic Sea and for centuries maintained close political and commercial ties with the Byzantine Empire. Its location and maritime expertise helped Venice become one of the great economic powers of the medieval Mediterranean.

Venice was not a conventional land empire. Instead, it built a maritime empire based on trade, naval power and control of strategically important ports and islands. During the Middle Ages, the Venetians acquired territories along the Adriatic coast and in the eastern Mediterranean, including Crete and numerous Aegean islands, while establishing commercial communities and trading privileges from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. By the Later Middle Ages, Venice had also begun acquiring substantial territories on the Italian mainland.

Tang Dynasty (618–907)

The period of the Tang Dynasty is regarded as one of the most prosperous eras in Chinese history. With a population that may have reached around 80 million by the ninth century, the empire could field powerful armies that expanded westward into Central Asia. At its height, Tang influence extended across a vast area, with neighbouring states and peoples maintaining tributary and diplomatic relationships with the Chinese court.

The Tang era also witnessed major developments in trade, culture and technology. Its capital, Chang’an, was one of the largest cities in the medieval world and the eastern destination of trade routes that connected China with Central Asia and regions farther west. Tang culture also had an important influence on neighbouring states, particularly Japan and Korea.

Ottoman Empire (1299–1923)

Emerging in northwestern Anatolia around the beginning of the fourteenth century, the Ottomans gradually expanded at the expense of both the Byzantine Empire and neighbouring Turkish states. They crossed into southeastern Europe during the fourteenth century and established themselves as one of the major powers of the Balkans. After suffering a major setback when Timur defeated Sultan Bayezid I at the Battle of Ankara in 1402, the Ottomans recovered and resumed their expansion.

Their most famous medieval conquest came in 1453, when Sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople, bringing the Byzantine Empire to an end. By the end of the fifteenth century, the Ottomans controlled much of Anatolia and the Balkans and had become one of the dominant powers of the eastern Mediterranean. The empire would continue expanding during the sixteenth century and survive until the twentieth.

Carolingian Empire (800–888)

The reign of Charlemagne (768–814) dramatically changed the political map of medieval Europe. Through a series of military campaigns, he brought much of western and central Europe under his rule, including the Frankish kingdoms, northern Italy and territories in what are now Germany and neighbouring regions. On Christmas Day in the year 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III.

Holding this vast collection of territories together proved much more difficult for his descendants. After the death of Charlemagne’s son Louis the Pious in 840, struggles among his sons resulted in the division of the empire in the Treaty of Verdun in 843. Further partitions followed during the ninth century, and by 888 the Carolingian Empire had fragmented into several kingdoms. These divisions helped shape the political geography from which France and Germany would eventually emerge.

Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)

After Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan became caliph in 661, he established the Umayyad dynasty, ruling from Damascus. Under Muawiya and his successors, the caliphate expanded dramatically, conquering territories across North Africa and Central Asia and reaching into the Iberian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent. At its height, the Umayyad Caliphate stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of China, making it one of the largest empires the medieval world had yet seen.

However, the Umayyads faced growing political and social opposition, culminating in the Abbasid Revolution, which overthrew the dynasty in 750. One surviving member of the Umayyad family, Abd al-Rahman I, escaped to al-Andalus, where he established an independent emirate in 756. His descendants would continue to rule parts of the Iberian Peninsula until the early eleventh century.

Khmer Empire (802–1431)

For more than six hundred years, the Khmer Empire was one of the dominant powers of Southeast Asia. Centred on Angkor in present-day Cambodia, its rulers extended their authority over large parts of mainland Southeast Asia, including territories in what are now Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. The empire reached particular heights during the reigns of Suryavarman II (1113–c.1150), who commissioned Angkor Wat, and Jayavarman VII (1181–c.1218), under whom Khmer power expanded considerably.

The empire’s rulers oversaw the construction of an extraordinary network of temples, reservoirs, canals and other infrastructure around Angkor. By the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, however, Khmer power was declining amid political conflicts, changing regional trade patterns and increasing pressure from neighbouring states. Angkor was attacked by forces from Ayutthaya in 1431, after which the centre of Khmer political power shifted southward.

Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258)

The Abbasid Revolution overthrew the Umayyads in 750 and established a new caliphate that eventually made Baghdad its political centre. At its height, Abbasid authority extended across an enormous territory from North Africa through the Middle East and into Central Asia. Baghdad became one of the largest and most important cities of the medieval world and a major centre of government, commerce, scholarship and culture.

From the ninth century onward, however, Abbasid political authority gradually weakened as regional dynasties established increasingly independent states and military commanders gained greater influence over the caliphs themselves. By the eleventh century, the Abbasid caliphs directly controlled little territory, although they retained considerable religious and symbolic importance across much of the Islamic world. The Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad came to an end in 1258, when the Mongols captured the city and killed Caliph al-Musta’sim.

Chola Empire (848–1279)

While the Chola Dynasty can trace its origins back to antiquity, it was during the ninth century that this Tamil state emerged as a major power in southern India. At its height in the eleventh century, particularly under Rajaraja I (985–1014) and his son Rajendra I (1014–1044), the Chola Empire controlled much of southern India and Sri Lanka, as well as the Maldives and other islands in the Indian Ocean.

The Cholas also became a formidable maritime power. In 1025, Rajendra I launched a major naval expedition against Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, attacking important ports and commercial centres. Chola power was closely connected to the flourishing trade networks of the Indian Ocean, while its rulers were also great patrons of architecture and temple building. The empire gradually weakened from the thirteenth century and came to an end in 1279.

First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018)

After the Bulgars established themselves in the Balkans during the seventh century, they created a state that expanded across much of southeastern Europe. Over the following centuries, the First Bulgarian Empire became one of Byzantium’s most formidable rivals, ruling over a diverse population that included Bulgars and Slavs. Its conversion to Christianity under Boris I in the ninth century also helped transform the religious and cultural landscape of the Balkans.

Bulgarian power reached its height under Simeon I (893–927), whose armies repeatedly defeated the Byzantines and extended his authority across much of the Balkans. Simeon assumed the title of emperor and sought to rival Byzantium itself. After a prolonged period of warfare, the Byzantine emperor Basil II completed the conquest of Bulgaria in 1018. A Second Bulgarian Empire emerged in 1185 and survived until the Ottoman conquests of the late fourteenth century.

Polish-Lithuanian Union (1386–1569)

The marriage of Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania, and Jadwiga, ruler of Poland, in 1386 brought two of eastern Europe’s largest states together under the Jagiellonian dynasty. Lithuania had already expanded far beyond its Baltic heartland, incorporating extensive territories of the former Rus’ principalities in what are now Belarus and Ukraine, as well as parts of present-day Russia. Together, Poland and Lithuania formed one of the largest political powers in late medieval Europe, stretching from the Baltic towards the Black Sea.

The union was not a single centralized empire but a dynastic and political association between distinct states, and the relationship between Poland and Lithuania changed considerably over time. Jagiellonian rulers also gained the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary during the late fifteenth century, briefly extending the dynasty’s influence across much of central and eastern Europe. In 1569, the Union of Lublin created the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, establishing a much closer political union between Poland and Lithuania.

Song Dynasty (960–1279)

After reuniting much of China in the tenth century, the Song Dynasty ushered in a period of economic prosperity and remarkable technological development. Its population eventually surpassed 100 million, while its cities became some of the largest in the medieval world. The Song period witnessed major developments in printing, navigation and gunpowder technology, as well as the world’s first widespread use of paper money.

The dynasty is divided into two periods: the Northern Song (960–1127) and Southern Song (1127–1279). After the Jurchen Jin Dynasty conquered northern China and captured the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1127, the imperial court re-established itself in the south, eventually making Hangzhou its capital. Despite losing the north, the Southern Song remained economically powerful until it was conquered by the Mongols in 1279.

Crown of Aragon (1137–1716)

This Mediterranean power emerged from the dynastic union of the Kingdom of Aragon and the County of Barcelona in the twelfth century. Rather than becoming a single centralized state, the Crown of Aragon developed into a collection of kingdoms and territories ruled by the same monarch, each retaining its own laws and political institutions.

During the Later Middle Ages, its rulers expanded across the Mediterranean, acquiring the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia and the Kingdom of Naples, while also exercising control over territories in Greece for periods of time. Catalan merchants established extensive trading networks throughout the Mediterranean, helping make the Crown of Aragon both a major commercial power and one of the most important examples of a medieval maritime empire.

Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517)

The Mamluks originated as enslaved soldiers, many recruited from the Eurasian steppe and trained for military service in the Islamic world. In 1250, Mamluk leaders seized power in Egypt, establishing a sultanate that would eventually rule Egypt, Syria and neighbouring territories. The Mamluk system continued to recruit enslaved military elites from outside the sultanate, creating a distinctive ruling class that endured for more than two and a half centuries.

The Mamluks became one of the leading military powers of the medieval Middle East. They defeated a Mongol army at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, resisted subsequent Mongol invasions and systematically eliminated the remaining Crusader strongholds along the eastern Mediterranean coast. Their rule finally came to an end in 1517, when the Ottoman sultan Selim I conquered Egypt and incorporated the Mamluk territories into the Ottoman Empire.

Angevin Empire (1154–1214)

Henry II amassed an impressive collection of titles during his reign: Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Lord of Ireland and King of England. Some of these lands came through inheritance, others through marriage and conquest, creating a collection of territories that stretched from the Scottish border to the Pyrenees and encompassed much of western France. Although the term “Angevin Empire” is a modern one, Henry proved remarkably effective at maintaining authority across these widely scattered lands.

The French king was surprised by what an active ruler Henry was, commenting “The king of England is now in Ireland, now in England, now in Normandy, he seems rather to fly than to go by horse or ship.” However, maintaining such a collection of territories proved difficult. Rebellions within Henry’s family and renewed pressure from the kings of France weakened Angevin power, and during the reign of his son John most of the family’s continental possessions north of the Loire were lost to Philip II of France.

Mali Empire (c. 1235–c. 1600)

The Mali Empire emerged in West Africa during the thirteenth century, traditionally associated with the victory of Sundiata Keita over the Sosso ruler Sumanguru at the Battle of Kirina around 1235. From its heartland along the upper Niger River, Mali expanded to incorporate numerous peoples and territories across the western Sudan. Its rulers benefited from control over important trade routes and access to the region’s rich supplies of gold.

Mali reached the height of its fame during the reign of Mansa Musa (1312–1337). His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324–25, accompanied by a large entourage and enormous quantities of gold, made his wealth famous far beyond West Africa. Under Mali’s rule, cities such as Timbuktu became important centres of commerce and Islamic scholarship. The empire gradually weakened from the fifteenth century as provinces and neighbouring states asserted their independence, although Mali continued to survive as a much smaller power for generations.

Holy Roman Empire (962–1806)

In 962, Otto I was crowned emperor in Rome, reviving the imperial title in western Europe and presenting himself as an heir to the traditions of Charlemagne. During the Middle Ages, the Holy Roman Empire encompassed a vast collection of territories in central Europe, particularly the German lands and northern Italy, while at various times also including Burgundy, Bohemia and other regions.

The Holy Roman Empire was never a highly centralized state. Its emperors governed alongside powerful dukes, princes, bishops, abbots and increasingly independent cities, whose degree of autonomy varied considerably over the centuries. The imperial title was elective rather than simply hereditary, although particular dynasties frequently dominated it for generations. Despite its fragmented political structure and repeated struggles between emperors and other powers, the Holy Roman Empire proved extraordinarily durable, surviving throughout the Middle Ages and not formally coming to an end until 1806.

Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)

For more than three centuries, the Delhi Sultanate was one of the dominant powers of the Indian subcontinent. Ruled successively by five dynasties—the Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi—it expanded far beyond its original base in northern India. At its greatest extent under the Tughlaqs in the fourteenth century, the sultanate controlled or claimed authority over most of the Indian subcontinent.

The Delhi Sultanate brought together peoples of different religions, languages and cultures under its rule and strengthened India’s connections with the wider Islamic world and Central Asia. Its power fluctuated considerably, however, as regional states broke away and rulers struggled to maintain authority over such an enormous territory. In 1526, the last Lodi sultan, Ibrahim Lodi, was defeated and killed by Babur at the Battle of Panipat, opening the way for the establishment of the Mughal Empire.

Seljuk Empire (1037–1194)

The Seljuks emerged from the Turkic peoples of Central Asia and rapidly established one of the largest empires of the eleventh century. Under Tughril Beg and his successors, they conquered Iran, Iraq and large parts of Central Asia and the Middle East. In 1055, Tughril entered Baghdad, where the Abbasid caliph recognised him as sultan, while leaving the caliph with his religious authority.

The empire reached its height under Alp Arslan (1063–1072) and Malik Shah I (1072–1092). Alp Arslan’s victory over the Byzantine emperor Romanos IV at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 helped open Anatolia to increasing Turkish settlement and conquest. After Malik Shah’s death, disputes among members of the Seljuk dynasty contributed to the fragmentation of the empire into competing states. Seljuk successor states nevertheless remained major powers across the Middle East and Anatolia for generations.

Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)

The Fatimids were an Ismaili Shia dynasty that first established its rule in North Africa in the early tenth century with the support of Kutama Berbers. From their original base in Ifriqiya, they expanded westward and eastward before conquering Egypt in 969. The Fatimids then founded Cairo, which became the capital of their caliphate and one of the great political, commercial and cultural centres of the medieval Mediterranean.

At its height, Fatimid authority extended across much of North Africa, Egypt and parts of the Levant, while the caliphate also exercised influence around the Red Sea and into the Hejaz. From the later eleventh century, however, Fatimid power declined amid internal political and military struggles and the loss of territories to rival powers. In 1171, Saladin abolished the Fatimid Caliphate and restored Sunni rule in Egypt.

Kanem-Bornu Empire (c. 8th century–19th century)

The Kanem Empire emerged around Lake Chad and became one of the most enduring states in African history. Ruled for centuries by the Sefuwa dynasty, it expanded its authority over neighbouring peoples and benefited from its position along trans-Saharan trade routes linking Central Africa with North Africa. By the thirteenth century, Kanem had become a major regional power, with its rulers exercising influence on both sides of Lake Chad.

Kanem’s political centre originally lay northeast of Lake Chad, but internal conflicts and attacks by the Bulala forced the Sefuwa rulers to relocate to Bornu, west of the lake, during the late fourteenth century. There they rebuilt their power, creating what became known as the Bornu Empire. Although Kanem-Bornu would survive well beyond the Middle Ages, its medieval history demonstrates the longevity and adaptability of one of Africa’s major imperial states.

Timurid Empire (1370–1507)

In 1370, the Turco-Mongol warlord Timur, also known as Tamerlane, emerged as the dominant ruler of Central Asia and embarked on a series of campaigns that created one of the most powerful empires of the Later Middle Ages. Claiming the legacy of Chinggis Khan and the Mongol conquests, Timur brought much of Central Asia, Iran, Iraq and the Caucasus under his control, while his armies campaigned from northern India to Anatolia and Syria.

Timur’s spectacular military successes included the capture of Delhi in 1398 and his defeat of the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. After Timur’s death in 1405, his descendants struggled over his territories and the empire gradually fragmented. Nevertheless, Timurid rulers continued to govern important states in Central Asia and Iran for another century, while cities such as Samarkand and Herat became major centres of art, architecture and scholarship.

Ghaznavid Empire (977–1186)

The Ghaznavid Empire emerged from the eastern Islamic world during the late tenth century, with its political centre at Ghazni in present-day Afghanistan. It reached its greatest extent under Mahmud of Ghazni (998–1030), whose campaigns established Ghaznavid authority across parts of Iran, Central Asia and the northwestern Indian subcontinent. Mahmud also repeatedly campaigned deeper into India, bringing enormous wealth back to his capital.

Although its ruling elite was of Turkic origin, the Ghaznavid court became an important centre of Persian language and culture, helping spread Persian cultural influence eastward into South Asia. After Mahmud’s death, the empire came under increasing pressure from the Seljuks and other rivals. The Ghaznavids eventually lost their territories in Afghanistan and shifted their centre of power towards Lahore before their dynasty was finally overthrown by the Ghurids in 1186.

North Sea Empire (1016–1035)

Cnut the Great created a remarkable maritime empire in northern Europe during the early eleventh century. After conquering England in 1016, he became king of Denmark in 1018 and added Norway to his domains in 1028. At the height of his power, Cnut ruled three major kingdoms surrounding the North Sea, while also exercising influence over other rulers in Britain and Scandinavia.

The North Sea Empire was not a unified state but a collection of kingdoms held together by Cnut’s personal authority. This made its survival particularly dependent on the ruler himself. After Cnut’s death in 1035, his sons struggled to maintain control of his territories, and the empire quickly broke apart. Although exceptionally short-lived, Cnut’s achievement made him one of the most powerful rulers in eleventh-century Europe.

Ghurid Empire (c. 1175–1215)

The Ghurids originated as local rulers in the mountainous region of Ghor in present-day Afghanistan, but during the twelfth century they emerged as a major imperial power. Under the brothers Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad and Muhammad of Ghor, the Ghurids expanded westward into Iran and eastward across Afghanistan and northern India. They also brought the Ghaznavid Empire to an end, capturing its last major stronghold at Lahore in 1186.

Ghurid expansion into northern India proved particularly important. Muhammad of Ghor’s victory over Prithviraj Chauhan at the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 opened the way for further conquests across the region. The empire rapidly fragmented after the deaths of its leading rulers in the early thirteenth century, but its military commanders in India established states that helped lay the foundations for the Delhi Sultanate.

Qara Khitai / Western Liao Empire (1124–1218)

The Qara Khitai Empire was established by Khitans who fled westward after the Jurchens overthrew the Liao Dynasty in northern China. Led by Yelü Dashi, they moved into Central Asia and established authority over a remarkably diverse collection of territories and peoples. At its height, their empire stretched from the Oxus River to the Altai Mountains, encompassing much of Central Asia.

The Qara Khitai generally allowed their subject peoples and local rulers considerable autonomy while demanding tribute and recognition of their supremacy. Their greatest military victory came at the Battle of Qatwan in 1141, where they decisively defeated the Seljuk sultan Ahmad Sanjar and established themselves as the leading power in Central Asia. Their empire weakened after the Naiman prince Kuchlug seized power in 1211 and finally fell to the Mongols in 1218.

Almoravid Empire (c. 1050–1147)

The Almoravids emerged among the Sanhaja Berbers of the western Sahara during the eleventh century, combining religious reform with military expansion. From their Saharan origins they pushed northward, conquering Morocco and establishing Marrakesh as their capital. Their empire also extended southward along important trans-Saharan trade routes, giving the Almoravids control over territory linking West Africa with the Mediterranean.

Under Yusuf ibn Tashfin (c. 1061–1106), the Almoravids intervened in the Iberian Peninsula, where the Muslim taifa rulers faced growing pressure from the Christian kingdoms. After defeating Alfonso VI of León and Castile at the Battle of Sagrajas in 1086, Yusuf gradually brought much of al-Andalus under Almoravid rule. By the early twelfth century, the empire stretched from the Sahara into Iberia, but growing opposition from the Almohads eventually destroyed Almoravid power. Marrakesh fell to the Almohads in 1147, bringing the empire to an end.

Srivijaya (c. 7th–13th centuries)

Centred on Sumatra, Srivijaya became one of the great maritime powers of medieval Southeast Asia. Rather than controlling a vast continuous territory, its strength rested on a network of ports and its influence over the waterways connecting the Indian Ocean and South China Sea. From its early centre at Palembang, Srivijaya exercised influence over ports and territories around Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and other parts of maritime Southeast Asia.

Its location near the Strait of Malacca allowed Srivijaya to benefit enormously from the maritime trade connecting China, Southeast Asia, India and regions farther west. It also became an important centre of Buddhist learning. In 1025, the Chola ruler Rajendra I launched a major naval expedition against Srivijaya and attacked several of its important centres. Srivijaya survived, but its dominance gradually weakened, and by the thirteenth century its once-powerful maritime network had fragmented.

Majapahit Empire (1293–c. 1527)

Founded in eastern Java in 1293, Majapahit became one of the most powerful states in medieval Southeast Asia. It reached its height during the fourteenth century under King Hayam Wuruk (1350–1389) and his influential chief minister Gajah Mada. Majapahit established authority and influence across Java and Bali while developing political and tributary relationships with numerous communities throughout the Indonesian archipelago.

Later sources portray Majapahit’s influence as extending across a huge portion of maritime Southeast Asia, although its actual degree of control over distant territories remains debated. Much of its power probably depended on alliances, tribute and commercial relationships rather than direct administration. After the death of Hayam Wuruk, dynastic disputes and the growth of new political and commercial powers gradually weakened the empire. Majapahit declined during the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries as Islamic states became increasingly powerful around the archipelago.

Of course, a list of 30 medieval empires leaves out many worthy contenders. The Almohad Empire succeeded the Almoravids and built an even larger realm across North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, while the Khwarazmian Empire became one of the great powers of Central Asia and Iran just before the Mongol conquests. In West Africa, the Ghana Empire dominated important gold and trans-Saharan trade routes centuries before the rise of Mali, while the Songhai Empire emerged in the fifteenth century and eventually became the largest of the great empires of the western Sudan. Expand the list a little further, and all four could easily find a place.