A medieval writer set out to describe the far North—and filled it with dragons, Amazons, and lands at the edge of the world. In his Description of the Islands of the North, Adam of Bremen blends observation and imagination to reveal how the medieval mind understood danger, wonder, and the unknown.
By Adrian Rodriguez
From the ninth century, the joint archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen had claimed primacy over the northern conversion mission. Although some of their missionary bishops, like Ansgar (831–865) and Unni (916–936), had preached in Scandinavia, their success had been limited. Furthermore, their claim was contested by other local archdioceses, such as Cologne and Mainz, and, in the late eleventh century, by Scandinavian kings who demanded an archdiocese of their own. As a response to these threats, Archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg (1043–1072) commissioned a propagandistic work that narrated the deeds of the bishops and archbishops of Hamburg and Bremen from their foundation: the Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum – Deeds of the Bishops of the Church of Hamburg, written by Adam of Bremen.
Page from Vienna cod. 521 of Adam von Bremen’s Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum. The page includes the beginning of the geographical portion Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis – Wikimedia Commons
Adam of Bremen, the master of canons at the Church of Bremen, is one of the most emblematic and controversial figures for the history of the medieval North. Some scholars have accused him of writing nothing more than an exaggerated propagandistic pamphlet, whilst others argue that his aims and interests went beyond those of his see. The work is divided into four books: the first two describe the history of the archdiocese’s origins and the deeds of its prelates; the third is a thorough and critical biography of Archbishop Adalbert; and the fourth is a curious ethnographical, cultural, and geographical description of the islands of the North.
This fourth book, named in Latin Descriptio insularum Aquilonis (Description of the Islands of the North), is something quite unique. It describes many aspects of the lands beyond the Elbe River: their topography, the character of their peoples, their religions, and even the monsters that dwelled therein. Scholars believe that this was written to show the reach of Hamburg-Bremen’s influence and the dangers that its missionaries had faced for the conversion mission. Nonetheless, it is not only that. Adam’s style reveals a genuine interest not only in the legatio gentium but also in the wonders of the North. In the following paragraphs, we will explore what dangers, monsters, and marvels he describes.
1. Denmark
Denmark depicted in Olaus Magnus’ Carta Marina from 1572
A) Vikings: Adam says that around the Danish island of Fyn, a large number of pirates are gathered. ‘These pirates’, he says, ‘are called Vikings (wichingos) in their language and “Ascomans” (ascomannos) in ours’. This is the only occurrence of the word ‘vikings’ in Latin, as well! The word ascomanni may derive from the words ἀσϰός / ascus (boat) and man. He mentions that they pay a tribute to the Danish king so that they are allowed to plunder abroad, but notes that they are so dangerous that they attack, kidnap, and sell into slavery even their own.
B) Cruel laws: He says that there are only two types of punishment for crimes in Denmark: slavery or death, ‘but they prefer to be beheaded rather than submit’. Further, he mentions that, if a woman had been a victim of sexual abuse, she is immediately sold into slavery.
C) Public display of feelings: Adam warns his readers that, in Denmark, it is not allowed to display strong feelings: tears, lamentations, and all types of sorrow ‘which among us are considered healthy’ horrify the Danes to such an extent that no one is allowed to cry neither for their sins nor for their dearly departed.
2. Estonia
Estonia and other Baltic lands depicted in Olaus Magnus’ Carta Marina from 1572
A) Dragons: According to Adam, the people of Estonia completely ignored the Christian God. They, in fact, worshipped winged dragons, to which they offered living people. Nonetheless, these dragons did not just eat anyone: the victims had to be spotless, without a single mark on their bodies. Otherwise, the dragons would reject them.
3. Samland
A) Christian persecutors: This peninsula in the southeast of the Baltic was home to the Sambians or Prussians. They had many praiseworthy customs, such as a complete disregard for gold, silver, and precious furs. ‘If only they were Christian, many good things could be said about them’. However, according to Adam, they persecuted and martyred Christians. They had, in fact, martyred the famous Adalbert of Prague in 997. These people are also said to feed themselves on the meat of beasts of burden, and allegedly got drunk on their blood. They painted their bodies blue, their faces red, and had long hair. They did not tolerate any masters.
4. The Land of Women
Olaus Magnus, Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus V, 28
A) Amazons: The Land of Women, according to Adam, was not far to the east from the Swedish land of Birka. The Amazons lived there, and some sources said they came into contact with water to become pregnant, but other more credible sources said that merchants, prisoners, or monsters ‘that are not uncommon around those parts’ got them pregnant. If they begot a male, they would become Cynocephali – dog-headed men – but if they begot a girl, they would become the most beautiful of women. They rejected and despised any male approach, and they were ready to fight ‘manfully’ any men who would dare to come near.
5. Russia and beyond
A cynocephalus depicted in the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493)
A) Cynocephali: These dog-headed men were commonly found in Russia as prisoners, probably outsourced from the Amazons. Adam, however, seems to confuse or fuse these creatures with another medieval species, the Blemmyes. He says that Cynocephali are those who ‘have their faces on their chest’, but he also says that they ‘bark their words’.
B) The Wizzi: These people, called Alani or Albini in Latin, lived in Russia, and were insatiable gluttons. They were born with white hair and defended their country with dogs. Their front lines consisted of dogs.
C) Man-eaters: Beyond the territory of the Wizzi lived the Anthropophagi. They fed themselves on the flesh of men. Travellers claimed that there were many other monsters in this same area, but Adam was sceptical about it.
6. Sweden
Sweden and Norway depicted in Olaus Magnus’ Carta Marina
A) Swedes: According to Adam, the Swedes were the best and noblest of all people. He claims that they were devoid of haughtiness or greed. They were also the most hospitable, and whenever a foreigner came into their lands, they fought for the right to receive guests and show them their hospitality. They would take them in for as many days as they required. Further, Sweden was, in his opinion, the most fertile region of the North: it was overflowing with honey and fruit; they had the most and the best cattle, rivers everywhere, the best horses, and all sorts of imported goods.
B) Dangerous monsters: Adam claims that, in the north-easternmost region of Sweden, a variety of monsters could be found: monstrous men, cynocephali, cyclopes, and himantopodes – a race of people with weak legs who crawled rather than walked.
C) The Great Temple of Uppsala: There was, however, a great downside to Sweden. Not far from Sigtuna, the medieval capital of Sweden, lay, according to Adam, a great temple, fully covered in gold, dedicated to three powerful gods: Thor, Odin, and Frey, whose statues sat side by side in a triclinium. According to Adam, Thor was the most powerful of them and sat in the middle seat, holding a sceptre; he was not only the god of thunder, but also of wind, rain, good weather, and fruit. About Odin, he claims that the name ‘Othin’ means ‘wrath’ and hence was worshipped as the god of war. Finally, Frey was the god of peace, pleasure, and fertility. His statue was fashioned with an ‘enormous penis’.
Adam claims that all the people of Sweden, even Christians, were obligated to attend a special sacrifice every nine years. In this ceremony, nine masculine animals of every species were offered, and their blood appeased the gods. Their bodies were hung in the trees of the surrounding grove, and each of those trees was considered holy. In a marginal note, Adam claims that one human was also sacrificed by being drowned in an adjacent well. This entire passage has generated great academic controversy.
7. Norway
A) Sorcerers and diviners: Beyond the Arctic region, on the northernmost coast of Norway dwelt some of the most powerful and fearsome sorcerers and diviners in the world. They were so mighty that they knew what every person in the world was doing, and they were capable of calling frightening sea monsters to the shore with their potent incantations.
B) The Tomb of Saint Óláfr: Adam claims that the tomb of Saint Óláfr in Trondheim worked great miracles and attracted multitudes from every part of the world. Adam offers two routes to reach Trondheim: by sea, sailing from Aalborg or Vendsyssel, or by land, from Scania. The latter was considerably more dangerous and was, therefore, generally avoided by travellers.
8. Iceland/Thule
Iceland depicted in Olaus Magnus’ Carta Marina
A) Iceland itself: Adam considered that Iceland was the fabled land of Thule of the ancients. He reports that, around the summer solstice, there are no nights, and no days around the winter solstice. He also offers the etymology of the name ‘Iceland’: it is called thus because of the thick ice that surrounds it. That ice is so ancient and cold that it could even make anything that touches it burst into flames. Its people were humble and praiseworthy, since they lived off what little nature offered them.
9. The Atlantic and Beyond
Western islands depicted in Olaus Magnus’ Carta Marina
A) Greenland: According to Adam, Greenland was called thus because its dwellers had green skin. They were similar to the people of Iceland, but ‘they were crueller and more hostile towards travellers on account of the pirate raids’ they had suffered.
B) Vinland: Adam of Bremen is the first known European writer to report a Norse settlement in America. Vinland, he says, was called thus on account of the wild grape-vines (vites) that grew there. Their fruit produced excellent wine. Some Danes had informed him of the veracity of this; nonetheless, nothing could be found beyond this ‘island’ except thick fog and ice sheets.
C) The Abyss and the Island of Cyclopes: According to a tale narrated by Archbishop Adalbert to Adam, some Frisian sailors had decided to sail towards the northwest to see what hidden secrets they could run into. They sailed west of Denmark and saw the Orkneys and then reached Iceland. Going towards the north, they suddenly crashed against a thick fog and were dragged by a current towards the abyss that was the very source of the Ocean. Some ships were sucked into the abyss, but some others were pushed far away from it.
When they thought they were free of danger, they arrived at an island that was surrounded by high cliffs, as if it were a fortress. They disembarked and saw, in front of a large gate, many treasures: golden vases, precious metals, and other items. They seized as many as they could and returned to their ships. Nonetheless, they suddenly found themselves being chased by cyclopes leading enormous dogs. An unfortunate member of the party was caught and maimed by them, but the others were able to flee.
These are the wonders of the North that Adam reports in his fourth book, The Description of the Islands of the North. It is worth noting that Adam does not seem to believe that all of them were real: he sometimes discounts them as rumours that he heard from travellers. What he certainly believed in – and perhaps feared – was everything related to sorcery, witchcraft, and non-Christian religions. He refrains from telling everything he had heard about those affairs. Another important thing to note is that many of the marvellous creatures were originally reported in classical literature; thus, Adam is trying to update the wonder-map of the ancients by pushing their creatures towards the edges of the known world. Including them in this work may have also been a way to demonstrate that the missionaries of his see had faced great dangers for the salvation of the people.
Adrian Rodriguez holds a PhD in Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic from the University of Cambridge. He currently works as a research librarian at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. He is interested in the cultural history of the Christianisation of Scandinavia. You can follow him on Instagram.
A medieval writer set out to describe the far North—and filled it with dragons, Amazons, and lands at the edge of the world. In his Description of the Islands of the North, Adam of Bremen blends observation and imagination to reveal how the medieval mind understood danger, wonder, and the unknown.
By Adrian Rodriguez
From the ninth century, the joint archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen had claimed primacy over the northern conversion mission. Although some of their missionary bishops, like Ansgar (831–865) and Unni (916–936), had preached in Scandinavia, their success had been limited. Furthermore, their claim was contested by other local archdioceses, such as Cologne and Mainz, and, in the late eleventh century, by Scandinavian kings who demanded an archdiocese of their own. As a response to these threats, Archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg (1043–1072) commissioned a propagandistic work that narrated the deeds of the bishops and archbishops of Hamburg and Bremen from their foundation: the Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum – Deeds of the Bishops of the Church of Hamburg, written by Adam of Bremen.
Adam of Bremen, the master of canons at the Church of Bremen, is one of the most emblematic and controversial figures for the history of the medieval North. Some scholars have accused him of writing nothing more than an exaggerated propagandistic pamphlet, whilst others argue that his aims and interests went beyond those of his see. The work is divided into four books: the first two describe the history of the archdiocese’s origins and the deeds of its prelates; the third is a thorough and critical biography of Archbishop Adalbert; and the fourth is a curious ethnographical, cultural, and geographical description of the islands of the North.
This fourth book, named in Latin Descriptio insularum Aquilonis (Description of the Islands of the North), is something quite unique. It describes many aspects of the lands beyond the Elbe River: their topography, the character of their peoples, their religions, and even the monsters that dwelled therein. Scholars believe that this was written to show the reach of Hamburg-Bremen’s influence and the dangers that its missionaries had faced for the conversion mission. Nonetheless, it is not only that. Adam’s style reveals a genuine interest not only in the legatio gentium but also in the wonders of the North. In the following paragraphs, we will explore what dangers, monsters, and marvels he describes.
1. Denmark
A) Vikings: Adam says that around the Danish island of Fyn, a large number of pirates are gathered. ‘These pirates’, he says, ‘are called Vikings (wichingos) in their language and “Ascomans” (ascomannos) in ours’. This is the only occurrence of the word ‘vikings’ in Latin, as well! The word ascomanni may derive from the words ἀσϰός / ascus (boat) and man. He mentions that they pay a tribute to the Danish king so that they are allowed to plunder abroad, but notes that they are so dangerous that they attack, kidnap, and sell into slavery even their own.
B) Cruel laws: He says that there are only two types of punishment for crimes in Denmark: slavery or death, ‘but they prefer to be beheaded rather than submit’. Further, he mentions that, if a woman had been a victim of sexual abuse, she is immediately sold into slavery.
C) Public display of feelings: Adam warns his readers that, in Denmark, it is not allowed to display strong feelings: tears, lamentations, and all types of sorrow ‘which among us are considered healthy’ horrify the Danes to such an extent that no one is allowed to cry neither for their sins nor for their dearly departed.
2. Estonia
A) Dragons: According to Adam, the people of Estonia completely ignored the Christian God. They, in fact, worshipped winged dragons, to which they offered living people. Nonetheless, these dragons did not just eat anyone: the victims had to be spotless, without a single mark on their bodies. Otherwise, the dragons would reject them.
3. Samland
A) Christian persecutors: This peninsula in the southeast of the Baltic was home to the Sambians or Prussians. They had many praiseworthy customs, such as a complete disregard for gold, silver, and precious furs. ‘If only they were Christian, many good things could be said about them’. However, according to Adam, they persecuted and martyred Christians. They had, in fact, martyred the famous Adalbert of Prague in 997. These people are also said to feed themselves on the meat of beasts of burden, and allegedly got drunk on their blood. They painted their bodies blue, their faces red, and had long hair. They did not tolerate any masters.
4. The Land of Women
A) Amazons: The Land of Women, according to Adam, was not far to the east from the Swedish land of Birka. The Amazons lived there, and some sources said they came into contact with water to become pregnant, but other more credible sources said that merchants, prisoners, or monsters ‘that are not uncommon around those parts’ got them pregnant. If they begot a male, they would become Cynocephali – dog-headed men – but if they begot a girl, they would become the most beautiful of women. They rejected and despised any male approach, and they were ready to fight ‘manfully’ any men who would dare to come near.
5. Russia and beyond
A) Cynocephali: These dog-headed men were commonly found in Russia as prisoners, probably outsourced from the Amazons. Adam, however, seems to confuse or fuse these creatures with another medieval species, the Blemmyes. He says that Cynocephali are those who ‘have their faces on their chest’, but he also says that they ‘bark their words’.
B) The Wizzi: These people, called Alani or Albini in Latin, lived in Russia, and were insatiable gluttons. They were born with white hair and defended their country with dogs. Their front lines consisted of dogs.
C) Man-eaters: Beyond the territory of the Wizzi lived the Anthropophagi. They fed themselves on the flesh of men. Travellers claimed that there were many other monsters in this same area, but Adam was sceptical about it.
6. Sweden
A) Swedes: According to Adam, the Swedes were the best and noblest of all people. He claims that they were devoid of haughtiness or greed. They were also the most hospitable, and whenever a foreigner came into their lands, they fought for the right to receive guests and show them their hospitality. They would take them in for as many days as they required. Further, Sweden was, in his opinion, the most fertile region of the North: it was overflowing with honey and fruit; they had the most and the best cattle, rivers everywhere, the best horses, and all sorts of imported goods.
B) Dangerous monsters: Adam claims that, in the north-easternmost region of Sweden, a variety of monsters could be found: monstrous men, cynocephali, cyclopes, and himantopodes – a race of people with weak legs who crawled rather than walked.
C) The Great Temple of Uppsala: There was, however, a great downside to Sweden. Not far from Sigtuna, the medieval capital of Sweden, lay, according to Adam, a great temple, fully covered in gold, dedicated to three powerful gods: Thor, Odin, and Frey, whose statues sat side by side in a triclinium. According to Adam, Thor was the most powerful of them and sat in the middle seat, holding a sceptre; he was not only the god of thunder, but also of wind, rain, good weather, and fruit. About Odin, he claims that the name ‘Othin’ means ‘wrath’ and hence was worshipped as the god of war. Finally, Frey was the god of peace, pleasure, and fertility. His statue was fashioned with an ‘enormous penis’.
Adam claims that all the people of Sweden, even Christians, were obligated to attend a special sacrifice every nine years. In this ceremony, nine masculine animals of every species were offered, and their blood appeased the gods. Their bodies were hung in the trees of the surrounding grove, and each of those trees was considered holy. In a marginal note, Adam claims that one human was also sacrificed by being drowned in an adjacent well. This entire passage has generated great academic controversy.
7. Norway
A) Sorcerers and diviners: Beyond the Arctic region, on the northernmost coast of Norway dwelt some of the most powerful and fearsome sorcerers and diviners in the world. They were so mighty that they knew what every person in the world was doing, and they were capable of calling frightening sea monsters to the shore with their potent incantations.
B) The Tomb of Saint Óláfr: Adam claims that the tomb of Saint Óláfr in Trondheim worked great miracles and attracted multitudes from every part of the world. Adam offers two routes to reach Trondheim: by sea, sailing from Aalborg or Vendsyssel, or by land, from Scania. The latter was considerably more dangerous and was, therefore, generally avoided by travellers.
8. Iceland/Thule
A) Iceland itself: Adam considered that Iceland was the fabled land of Thule of the ancients. He reports that, around the summer solstice, there are no nights, and no days around the winter solstice. He also offers the etymology of the name ‘Iceland’: it is called thus because of the thick ice that surrounds it. That ice is so ancient and cold that it could even make anything that touches it burst into flames. Its people were humble and praiseworthy, since they lived off what little nature offered them.
9. The Atlantic and Beyond
A) Greenland: According to Adam, Greenland was called thus because its dwellers had green skin. They were similar to the people of Iceland, but ‘they were crueller and more hostile towards travellers on account of the pirate raids’ they had suffered.
B) Vinland: Adam of Bremen is the first known European writer to report a Norse settlement in America. Vinland, he says, was called thus on account of the wild grape-vines (vites) that grew there. Their fruit produced excellent wine. Some Danes had informed him of the veracity of this; nonetheless, nothing could be found beyond this ‘island’ except thick fog and ice sheets.
C) The Abyss and the Island of Cyclopes: According to a tale narrated by Archbishop Adalbert to Adam, some Frisian sailors had decided to sail towards the northwest to see what hidden secrets they could run into. They sailed west of Denmark and saw the Orkneys and then reached Iceland. Going towards the north, they suddenly crashed against a thick fog and were dragged by a current towards the abyss that was the very source of the Ocean. Some ships were sucked into the abyss, but some others were pushed far away from it.
When they thought they were free of danger, they arrived at an island that was surrounded by high cliffs, as if it were a fortress. They disembarked and saw, in front of a large gate, many treasures: golden vases, precious metals, and other items. They seized as many as they could and returned to their ships. Nonetheless, they suddenly found themselves being chased by cyclopes leading enormous dogs. An unfortunate member of the party was caught and maimed by them, but the others were able to flee.
These are the wonders of the North that Adam reports in his fourth book, The Description of the Islands of the North. It is worth noting that Adam does not seem to believe that all of them were real: he sometimes discounts them as rumours that he heard from travellers. What he certainly believed in – and perhaps feared – was everything related to sorcery, witchcraft, and non-Christian religions. He refrains from telling everything he had heard about those affairs. Another important thing to note is that many of the marvellous creatures were originally reported in classical literature; thus, Adam is trying to update the wonder-map of the ancients by pushing their creatures towards the edges of the known world. Including them in this work may have also been a way to demonstrate that the missionaries of his see had faced great dangers for the salvation of the people.
Adrian Rodriguez holds a PhD in Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic from the University of Cambridge. He currently works as a research librarian at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. He is interested in the cultural history of the Christianisation of Scandinavia. You can follow him on Instagram.
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