The End of the World in Images: The Picture Book of the Life of St John and the Apocalypse

Picture Book of the Life of St John and the Apocalypse is a unique and visually striking example of the picture-book Apocalypse – a distinctive group of medieval manuscripts that present the apocalyptic visions of the Book of Revelation primarily through images. Centred on the visions of St John and often framed by episodes from his legendary life, these manuscripts transform the biblical text into a continuous pictorial narrative. They, as their name implies, are conceived first and foremost as image cycles, guiding the viewer sequentially through John’s visions of the end of time.

The picture-book Apocalypse images are typically organised in double registers, with two framed miniatures on a page, creating a steady rhythm that carries the narrative forward. Unlike conventional illustrated Bibles, which feature the complete, continuous text of Revelation, picture-book Apocalypses instead integrate selected biblical passages directly into the images, along with an exegetical commentary traditionally attributed to a ninth-century Benedictine monk, Berengaudus. These texts appear on placards, labels, and speech scrolls embedded within the miniatures, functioning both as narrative cues and interpretative guides.

Inscriptions play a central role in these manuscripts. Nearly all miniatures include brief labels identifying key figures, as well as longer inscriptions that set forth scenes or convey dialogue. The balance between image, biblical quotation, and commentary varies considerably from scene to scene and from manuscript to manuscript. Some miniatures rely almost entirely on Berengaudus’s commentary, while others omit it altogether, drawing instead on biblical excerpts or focusing on imagery.

The tradition of picture-book Apocalypses began in the mid-thirteenth century with two closely related English manuscripts: the Morgan Apocalypse (1255–60) and the Bodleian Apocalypse (c. 1260), likely based on a now-lost Anglo-French archetype from around 1240–45. The Morgan Apocalypse (The Morgan Library & Museum, MS M.524), created in Westminster, is usually regarded as the closest surviving witness to this archetype, while the Bodleian Apocalypse (Bodleian Library, MS Auct. D.4.17), its “twin” manuscript, was likely produced by a different workshop. Two later extant manuscripts, the Rylands Apocalypse (c. 1360–70; John Rylands Library, Latin MS 19) and the Picture Book of the Life of St John and the Apocalypse (c. 1400; British Library, Additional MS 38121), continued this tradition in continental Europe, demonstrating exceptional consistency in content, iconography, and design.

The iconographic programme of picture-book Apocalypses is itself remarkably stable. The manuscripts consistently illustrate a standard cycle of eighty-three scenes from Revelation, maintaining a high degree of uniformity in composition and iconography across works produced over a period of more than 150 years. While minor variations occur – such as adjustments in the placement of inscriptions or the simplification of certain details – the overall visual language remains largely consistent. This continuity underscores the strength of the tradition and highlights the role of these manuscripts as carefully structured visual exegeses rather than merely decorative accompaniments to Scripture.

Picture-book Apocalypses enrich their visual storytelling by integrating popular medieval legends and theological interpretations into the apocalyptic framework. One such addition is the Antichrist legend, which is ultimately based on the Libellus de Antichristo, written by Adso of Montier-en-Der in the mid-tenth century as an inverted saint’s life. This tradition interprets the Two Witnesses of Revelation as the Old Testament righteous men Enoch and Elijah, who will confront the Antichrist during the Last Days. The Antichrist is depicted as performing deceitful miracles, bribing followers, and persecuting Christians, but it is ultimately destroyed by Christ and dragged to hell by demons.

A second characteristic narrative addition of picture-book Apocalypses is the framing of the entirety of John’s apocalyptic vision by scenes from the visionary’s life, effectively integrating Revelation into a broader hagiographic narrative. The manuscripts typically begin with scenes depicting John’s ministry in Ephesus, his arrest, trial, and exile to Patmos, where he receives his vision. The cycle of Revelation then unfolds, after which the narrative concludes with John’s return to Ephesus, his miraculous deeds, and his death. These hagiographic scenes are an integral part of the picture-book Apocalypses, providing a narrative context for John’s visions and reinforcing their authority.

However, the Picture Book of the Life of St John and the Apocalypse demonstrates not only continuity with the picture-book tradition but also significant innovation in both design and illustrative style. Unlike earlier picture books, which rely exclusively on compact half-page miniatures, the Picture Book of the Life of St John and the Apocalypse uses large, full-page miniatures for some of the Book of Revelation’s most important opening events: John on Patmos, the Seven Churches of Asia Minor and the apocalyptic Christ amid the Seven Candlesticks, John’s vision of Christ in Majesty worshipped by the Elders, and the Lamb of God surrounded by the Four Living Creatures. This expansion of scale allows for greater clarity in scenes that are otherwise dense in imagery and Latin inscriptions.

Furthermore, the British Library manuscript arranges illustrations only on verso sides, thereby enabling a second major innovation: the inclusion of the complete text of the Book of Revelation on the recto sides of the folios, although the manuscript’s designer made no attempt to synchronise this continuous text with the images placed on the facing pages.

However, the most striking innovative difference that sets the Picture Book of the Life of St John and the Apocalypse apart from earlier manuscripts in the same tradition lies in its illustrative technique. Whereas earlier picture-book Apocalypses employ tinted outline drawings set against plain grounds – a technique common in mid-thirteenth-century English manuscripts – the Picture Book of the Life of St John and the Apocalypse abandons that approach in favour of fully painted, richly coloured miniatures set against gold or diapered backgrounds, showcasing a decidedly more opulent and vibrant style. The extensive use of gold, saturated colours, and intricate patterns amplifies the prophetic intensity of the miniatures, enhancing their visual impact. This stylistic shift reflects a broader trend in manuscript production during the late medieval period, chiefly in the Southern Netherlands, where artists increasingly favoured more elaborate, decorative, and materially sumptuous modes of presentation.

The Picture Book of the Life of St John and the Apocalypse represents a fascinating combination of word and image, and of the depiction of the biblical text and its interpretation. It reflects many iconographic features developing over a period of six centuries in a vibrant tradition of illustrated Apocalypses and picture books. While retaining many elements of earlier manuscripts, it also introduces significant stylistic and compositional innovations that reflect the evolving artistic practices of the late medieval period, when traditional methods of copying and illumination coexisted with the emerging technology of print. As both a luxury object and a visual exegetical tool, the manuscript offers valuable insight into the development of apocalyptic imagery and attests to the enduring popularity of John’s visionary narrative in medieval art and culture.

This article is adapted from Richard K. Emmerson’s introduction and essay, “The Tradition of Picture-Book Apocalypses”, published in the commentary volume of the Picture Book of the Life of St John and the Apocalypse.

The facsimile editions of the Picture Book of the Life of St John and the Apocalypse and other illuminated manuscripts are available at www.moleiro.com.