The historiography of slavery in the Middle Ages has undergone significant evolution since the first studies conducted in the 19th century. While it was long believed that slavery had disappeared in Western Europe after Antiquity, recent research has challenged this view by demonstrating that servitude, in various forms, persisted throughout the medieval period.
The Forgotten Past: Intentional Omission or Neglect?
For much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, conservative scholars largely ignored or downplayed the presence of slavery in the Christian Middle Ages. Many historians of this period were reluctant to acknowledge that medieval Christian societies practised slavery, as this would contradict the idealised vision of a feudal society built on mutual obligations rather than forced labour. The dominant narrative, influenced by Romantic nationalism and Christian moralism, often presented medieval Europe as fundamentally different from the slave societies of Antiquity. The focus was instead placed on serfdom as a supposedly more humane form of dependence, obscuring the realities of enslavement that persisted in various forms.
The Influence of Marxist Historiography and the Rediscovery of Slavery
A major shift in historiography occurred with the advent of Marxist approaches to history, particularly in the mid-20th century. Historians influenced by Marxist theory began to examine economic structures more critically, leading to the realisation that slavery was an integral part of medieval economies. In 1977, Charles Verlinden published a study on L’esclavage dans l’Europe médiévale, in which he refuted the idea, inspired by earlier historiography, that slavery was merely a residual phenomenon in the medieval period, as opposed to its prominence in classical Antiquity. This pioneering study became a key reference for historians studying servitude in the Mediterranean.
Historiographical tradition then shifted towards a predominantly quantitative analysis of the phenomenon’s implications in the later Middle Ages and early modern period. Scholars such as Vicenta Cortés Alonso and Vicente Graullera Sanz for the city of Valencia, Josep Hernando for Barcelona, Domenico Gioffrè, Geo Pistarino, and Michel Balard for Genoa, and Giovanni Marrone for Sicily followed Verlinden’s methodological approach. Their research has provided relatively satisfactory answers to economic questions surrounding slavery. However, these scholars have largely focused on serial studies of slave prices and their correlation with morphological characteristics, as well as the formal operation of the slave trade market, often neglecting other key issues necessary for a deeper understanding of the economy of slavery.
Economic History and the Role of Slavery
While the historiography of the 1970s and its conceptual extensions built a largely positivist and descriptive discourse, the renewal of economic history has significantly influenced the analytical perspectives applied to the study of slavery. For instance, a special issue edited by Antoni Furió in Recerques in 2006 re-evaluated the role of slaves in the productive economy. Studies compiled by Fabienne Plazolles-Guillén and Salah Trabelsi in 2012 examined the economic dynamics linked to slavery and the trans-Mediterranean slave trade. The proceedings of the 45th Settimana di Studi of the Istituto internazionale di storia economica “F. Datini”, held in 2013, dedicated to slavery and servitude in the European economy from the 11th to the 18th century, further illustrate the influence of the renewed focus on economic history.
Slavery in the Islamic World and its Interactions with Europe
A scene from a 13th century manuscript, showing slaves in the Arab world. BNF MS Arabe 5847 fol.105r
Medieval slavery was not confined to Western Europe. The Islamic world maintained extensive networks of slave trade, supplying labour for agriculture, military service, and domestic work. The Abbasid Caliphate heavily relied on slaves, including the Mamluks, who eventually rose to power in Egypt. The Zanj Rebellion in present-day Iraq revealed the scale of African slavery in Islamic lands, particularly in plantation labour.
Trade routes connecting sub-Saharan Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East facilitated the transcontinental movement of enslaved people. The capture and sale of European slaves by Muslim merchants was significant during the early Middle Ages. Conversely, European merchants, particularly from Venice and Genoa, were deeply involved in supplying slaves to the Islamic markets. The symbiotic nature of Christian and Muslim slave trades challenges the traditional historiographical focus on isolated European slavery.
Specialised Studies and the Persistence of Gaps
Slave chain lock and key. Sweden (8th–11th century) – Photo by Wolfgang Sauber / Wikimedia Commons
Since the 1990s, medieval slavery has been approached with increasing specialisation, mirroring the historiographical advancements made in the study of Al-Andalus. Scholars have adopted a more focused methodology, similar to the specialised studies on Carolingian slavery, which have brought fresh perspectives on the economic and social roles of enslaved people in the Frankish Empire. However, despite these advances, significant gaps remain. Several regions and periods are still understudied, and a vast amount of research remains to be conducted. The question of how slavery functioned in lesser-documented societies, its legal frameworks, and its integration into broader medieval economies continues to represent a historiographical terra incognita.
Slavery as a Marginal or Foundational Phenomenon?
Despite these recent studies, slavery in the medieval and early modern Mediterranean is often considered a marginal phenomenon, incomparable to the large-scale deportation of millions of African slaves to the Americas. Historians have argued that before and after the emergence of the Atlantic slave trade and its impact on colonial America, Mediterranean slavery was limited to a small number of individuals, primarily employed in domestic service, and therefore had little influence on urban economies that relied on enslaved labour. This perception has repeatedly surfaced in historiography and has shaped the perspectives of historians specialising in Atlantic colonial slavery. Orlando Patterson, for instance, contends that slavery has not always been associated with economic productivity and efficiency, basing his argument on the study of North American plantation slavery while overlooking medieval manifestations of the phenomenon.
Marc Bloch had already highlighted the persistence of ancient slavery in Europe from the 5th to the 11th centuries. However, the debate on whether the institution survived throughout the medieval period or was replaced by other forms of dependence remains lively. Dominique Barthélemy, for example, argues that “since Antiquity, perhaps, the historian may choose to call (slaves) serfs,” because “slavery is a referential fiction, serfdom a legal status, and dependence a social reality.” Meanwhile, Michael McCormick asserts that the slave trade was central to the Carolingian economic expansion of the 8th-10th centuries.
Modern Perspectives and the Continuity of Slavery
Studying slavery from the perspective of its economic complexity not only helps us understand its impact on the labour market in regions that relied on enslaved workers but also allows for an analysis of slavery as a phenomenon that played a crucial role in structuring economic circulations and networks, both regionally and internationally. This perspective aligns with a new trend in research that has emerged in recent years, highlighting an increasing interest in a multifaceted approach to servitude in understanding ancient societies. Various initiatives, such as the European research programme Slave Trade, Slavery, Abolition, and Their Legacies in European Histories and Identities and the Status, Races et Couleurs dans l’Atlantique de l’Antiquité à nos jours project at the University of Nantes, underscore the structural importance of slavery in shaping hierarchical societies and its enduring impact on modernity.
Dr Lorris Chevalier, who has a Ph.D. in medieval literature, is a historical advisor for movies, including The Last Duel and Napoleon. Click here to view his website.
Ivan Armenteros Martínez et Mohamed Ouerfelli, « Réévaluer l’économie de l’esclavage en Méditerranée au Moyen Âge et au début de l’époque Moderne », Rives méditerranéennes, 53 | 2016, 7-17.
Top Images: Slaves depicted in a panel from the Gniezno Cathedral Door, made circa 1175 – Wikimedia Commons
By Lorris Chevalier
The historiography of slavery in the Middle Ages has undergone significant evolution since the first studies conducted in the 19th century. While it was long believed that slavery had disappeared in Western Europe after Antiquity, recent research has challenged this view by demonstrating that servitude, in various forms, persisted throughout the medieval period.
The Forgotten Past: Intentional Omission or Neglect?
For much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, conservative scholars largely ignored or downplayed the presence of slavery in the Christian Middle Ages. Many historians of this period were reluctant to acknowledge that medieval Christian societies practised slavery, as this would contradict the idealised vision of a feudal society built on mutual obligations rather than forced labour. The dominant narrative, influenced by Romantic nationalism and Christian moralism, often presented medieval Europe as fundamentally different from the slave societies of Antiquity. The focus was instead placed on serfdom as a supposedly more humane form of dependence, obscuring the realities of enslavement that persisted in various forms.
The Influence of Marxist Historiography and the Rediscovery of Slavery
A major shift in historiography occurred with the advent of Marxist approaches to history, particularly in the mid-20th century. Historians influenced by Marxist theory began to examine economic structures more critically, leading to the realisation that slavery was an integral part of medieval economies. In 1977, Charles Verlinden published a study on L’esclavage dans l’Europe médiévale, in which he refuted the idea, inspired by earlier historiography, that slavery was merely a residual phenomenon in the medieval period, as opposed to its prominence in classical Antiquity. This pioneering study became a key reference for historians studying servitude in the Mediterranean.
Historiographical tradition then shifted towards a predominantly quantitative analysis of the phenomenon’s implications in the later Middle Ages and early modern period. Scholars such as Vicenta Cortés Alonso and Vicente Graullera Sanz for the city of Valencia, Josep Hernando for Barcelona, Domenico Gioffrè, Geo Pistarino, and Michel Balard for Genoa, and Giovanni Marrone for Sicily followed Verlinden’s methodological approach. Their research has provided relatively satisfactory answers to economic questions surrounding slavery. However, these scholars have largely focused on serial studies of slave prices and their correlation with morphological characteristics, as well as the formal operation of the slave trade market, often neglecting other key issues necessary for a deeper understanding of the economy of slavery.
Economic History and the Role of Slavery
While the historiography of the 1970s and its conceptual extensions built a largely positivist and descriptive discourse, the renewal of economic history has significantly influenced the analytical perspectives applied to the study of slavery. For instance, a special issue edited by Antoni Furió in Recerques in 2006 re-evaluated the role of slaves in the productive economy. Studies compiled by Fabienne Plazolles-Guillén and Salah Trabelsi in 2012 examined the economic dynamics linked to slavery and the trans-Mediterranean slave trade. The proceedings of the 45th Settimana di Studi of the Istituto internazionale di storia economica “F. Datini”, held in 2013, dedicated to slavery and servitude in the European economy from the 11th to the 18th century, further illustrate the influence of the renewed focus on economic history.
Slavery in the Islamic World and its Interactions with Europe
Medieval slavery was not confined to Western Europe. The Islamic world maintained extensive networks of slave trade, supplying labour for agriculture, military service, and domestic work. The Abbasid Caliphate heavily relied on slaves, including the Mamluks, who eventually rose to power in Egypt. The Zanj Rebellion in present-day Iraq revealed the scale of African slavery in Islamic lands, particularly in plantation labour.
Trade routes connecting sub-Saharan Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East facilitated the transcontinental movement of enslaved people. The capture and sale of European slaves by Muslim merchants was significant during the early Middle Ages. Conversely, European merchants, particularly from Venice and Genoa, were deeply involved in supplying slaves to the Islamic markets. The symbiotic nature of Christian and Muslim slave trades challenges the traditional historiographical focus on isolated European slavery.
Specialised Studies and the Persistence of Gaps
Since the 1990s, medieval slavery has been approached with increasing specialisation, mirroring the historiographical advancements made in the study of Al-Andalus. Scholars have adopted a more focused methodology, similar to the specialised studies on Carolingian slavery, which have brought fresh perspectives on the economic and social roles of enslaved people in the Frankish Empire. However, despite these advances, significant gaps remain. Several regions and periods are still understudied, and a vast amount of research remains to be conducted. The question of how slavery functioned in lesser-documented societies, its legal frameworks, and its integration into broader medieval economies continues to represent a historiographical terra incognita.
Slavery as a Marginal or Foundational Phenomenon?
Despite these recent studies, slavery in the medieval and early modern Mediterranean is often considered a marginal phenomenon, incomparable to the large-scale deportation of millions of African slaves to the Americas. Historians have argued that before and after the emergence of the Atlantic slave trade and its impact on colonial America, Mediterranean slavery was limited to a small number of individuals, primarily employed in domestic service, and therefore had little influence on urban economies that relied on enslaved labour. This perception has repeatedly surfaced in historiography and has shaped the perspectives of historians specialising in Atlantic colonial slavery. Orlando Patterson, for instance, contends that slavery has not always been associated with economic productivity and efficiency, basing his argument on the study of North American plantation slavery while overlooking medieval manifestations of the phenomenon.
Marc Bloch had already highlighted the persistence of ancient slavery in Europe from the 5th to the 11th centuries. However, the debate on whether the institution survived throughout the medieval period or was replaced by other forms of dependence remains lively. Dominique Barthélemy, for example, argues that “since Antiquity, perhaps, the historian may choose to call (slaves) serfs,” because “slavery is a referential fiction, serfdom a legal status, and dependence a social reality.” Meanwhile, Michael McCormick asserts that the slave trade was central to the Carolingian economic expansion of the 8th-10th centuries.
Modern Perspectives and the Continuity of Slavery
Studying slavery from the perspective of its economic complexity not only helps us understand its impact on the labour market in regions that relied on enslaved workers but also allows for an analysis of slavery as a phenomenon that played a crucial role in structuring economic circulations and networks, both regionally and internationally. This perspective aligns with a new trend in research that has emerged in recent years, highlighting an increasing interest in a multifaceted approach to servitude in understanding ancient societies. Various initiatives, such as the European research programme Slave Trade, Slavery, Abolition, and Their Legacies in European Histories and Identities and the Status, Races et Couleurs dans l’Atlantique de l’Antiquité à nos jours project at the University of Nantes, underscore the structural importance of slavery in shaping hierarchical societies and its enduring impact on modernity.
Dr Lorris Chevalier, who has a Ph.D. in medieval literature, is a historical advisor for movies, including The Last Duel and Napoleon. Click here to view his website.
Click here to read more from Lorris Chevalier
Further Readings:
Ivan Armenteros Martínez et Mohamed Ouerfelli, « Réévaluer l’économie de l’esclavage en Méditerranée au Moyen Âge et au début de l’époque Moderne », Rives méditerranéennes, 53 | 2016, 7-17.
Top Images: Slaves depicted in a panel from the Gniezno Cathedral Door, made circa 1175 – Wikimedia Commons
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