What did the people of the medieval Low Countries look like, and how did they shape the genetic makeup of today’s Dutch population? A major new study of ancient DNA offers fresh insights. Researchers have found that, despite some regional differences, the people of the Netherlands remained remarkably stable from the Early Middle Ages through to modern times.
The study, published in Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, was led by scholars from Leiden University. It analysed the Y-chromosomes of 348 men from 13 locations in the Netherlands, dating from around 500 to 1850 CE. The Y-chromosome is passed down from fathers to sons and provides a useful marker for tracking paternal ancestry.
One of the study’s central findings is that the male population of the Netherlands changed very little over this 1,300-year period. While certain Y-chromosome types (known as haplogroups) rose or fell in frequency, these shifts can largely be explained by genetic drift rather than migration or population replacement.
“Despite statistically significant differences in haplogroup frequencies across time and space, our tests for population continuity provide no convincing evidence for discontinuity,” the researchers write. “In other words, the observed differences in most cases do not exclude a common ancestry between samples from different periods or locations within the Netherlands. This implies that the Dutch population was largely continuous in terms of paternal lineages over the last one and a half millennia.”
Continuity Over Time
This finding stands in contrast to some parts of Europe, where ancient DNA has revealed major upheavals in population after the fall of the Roman Empire. In Britain, for example, the arrival of Anglo-Saxon settlers brought widespread changes to the gene pool. But in the Low Countries, such sweeping demographic shifts appear to have been absent.
Instead, the researchers suggest that much of the change in Y-chromosome frequencies in the Netherlands came from genetic drift. This is a process by which certain genetic traits become more or less common over time, simply due to chance, especially in smaller or relatively isolated populations.
To test whether drift alone could account for the changes they observed, the team used population continuity models and statistical simulations. They found that in most cases, the differences between medieval and modern samples could be explained without assuming any major influx of new people.
“The overall picture presented by our analyses is one of a relatively stable population,” they write. “Even when significant variation in haplogroup frequencies is observed between regions and periods, this can usually be attributed to the combined effects of drift, sampling variation and social structure rather than migration or replacement.”
A Patrilocal Society
The study also looked at how Y-chromosomes varied across regions and compared them to patterns in mitochondrial DNA, which is passed from mothers to children. They found that regional differences were much stronger in the Y-chromosome data than in the mitochondrial data. This supports the idea that the medieval Netherlands was a patrilocal society, where men typically stayed in their home communities while women moved for marriage.
Map of Burgundian Netherlands (the Low Countries) in 1477. Wikimedia Commons
“The stronger regional structure in Y-chromosomal versus mitochondrial DNA suggests that the Netherlands was predominantly patrilocal over the past 1,500 years,” the authors explain. “This likely resulted in relatively stable local male lineages, which were reinforced over generations through limited male mobility.”
This social structure would have reinforced regional identities and helped preserve specific male lineages within communities for centuries. It also means that many modern Dutch men may still carry the Y-chromosome of their early medieval ancestors.
Changes in More Modern Times
Interestingly, the study shows that the geographic distribution of Y-chromosome types in the modern Netherlands does not closely match what was found in the early medieval samples. This suggests that today’s regional patterns of male ancestry developed more recently, likely after the Middle Ages.
“Although modern Dutch Y-chromosome diversity appears regionally structured, this structure does not closely resemble that of earlier periods,” the study notes. “Our findings suggest that the current distribution of haplogroups in the Netherlands formed relatively late in history, perhaps in the early modern period.”
This challenges earlier assumptions that today’s genetic regions in the Netherlands reflect deep medieval roots. In reality, many of the distinctions between northern, southern, and central Dutch populations may be only a few centuries old.
A Mysterious Find in Eindhoven
One of the most surprising discoveries in the study came from late medieval Eindhoven. At this site, 13.9 percent of male individuals carried the Y-chromosome haplogroup T-M70. This lineage is extremely rare in Europe today and is more commonly found in parts of the Middle East, Central Asia, and among some Jewish populations.
This unusual concentration raised the question of whether Eindhoven may have had a medieval Jewish community. The researchers examined this possibility by comparing their results to known Jewish and non-Jewish Y-chromosome data.
Map of Eindhoven from aound 1550 by Jacob van Deventer – Wikimedia Commons
“Our analyses do not yield conclusive evidence for a Jewish origin,” the authors state, “but the elevated frequency of T-M70 is difficult to explain through drift alone. The presence of this lineage in such high proportions at a single site remains a notable finding, even if its origins are still uncertain.”
No archaeological evidence has been found to confirm the presence of a Jewish community in medieval Eindhoven, but the genetic signal is strong enough to merit further investigation. It could point to a small but distinct group whose history has yet to be fully uncovered.
Regional Connections and Wider Context
The study also compared its results to ancient DNA from outside the Low Countries, including Anglo-Saxon sites in England. While there are some shared haplogroups, the researchers found key differences as well. For instance, the Dutch medieval population had lower levels of haplogroup I1 than their English counterparts, suggesting that Dutch migrants to England may have contributed mostly other lineages.
This finding adds nuance to our understanding of early medieval migrations and shows how even neighbouring regions could develop very different genetic profiles over time.
A Rare Window into the Medieval Past
In all, this study offers one of the most detailed looks yet at the genetic continuity of the Low Countries. It confirms that, for much of the past 1,500 years, the people of the Netherlands stayed largely in place. Local male lineages persisted, shaped more by chance and social customs than by mass migration.
It also highlights how ancient DNA can reveal hidden stories, such as the possible presence of minority communities that left no written or archaeological trace. As DNA research continues to expand, more pieces of the puzzle will fall into place—reshaping how we understand the medieval past and its connection to the present.
The article, “The dutch Y‑chromosome from the early middle ages to present day,” by Eveline Altena, Risha Smeding, Kristiaan J van der Gaag, Rick H de Leeuw, Eileen Vaske, Paul Reusink, Yoan Diekmann, Mark G Thomas and Peter de Knijff, appears in Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. Click here to read this article.
Top Image: 16th-century tapestry made in the Netherlands – Cleveland Museum of Art
What did the people of the medieval Low Countries look like, and how did they shape the genetic makeup of today’s Dutch population? A major new study of ancient DNA offers fresh insights. Researchers have found that, despite some regional differences, the people of the Netherlands remained remarkably stable from the Early Middle Ages through to modern times.
The study, published in Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, was led by scholars from Leiden University. It analysed the Y-chromosomes of 348 men from 13 locations in the Netherlands, dating from around 500 to 1850 CE. The Y-chromosome is passed down from fathers to sons and provides a useful marker for tracking paternal ancestry.
One of the study’s central findings is that the male population of the Netherlands changed very little over this 1,300-year period. While certain Y-chromosome types (known as haplogroups) rose or fell in frequency, these shifts can largely be explained by genetic drift rather than migration or population replacement.
“Despite statistically significant differences in haplogroup frequencies across time and space, our tests for population continuity provide no convincing evidence for discontinuity,” the researchers write. “In other words, the observed differences in most cases do not exclude a common ancestry between samples from different periods or locations within the Netherlands. This implies that the Dutch population was largely continuous in terms of paternal lineages over the last one and a half millennia.”
Continuity Over Time
This finding stands in contrast to some parts of Europe, where ancient DNA has revealed major upheavals in population after the fall of the Roman Empire. In Britain, for example, the arrival of Anglo-Saxon settlers brought widespread changes to the gene pool. But in the Low Countries, such sweeping demographic shifts appear to have been absent.
Instead, the researchers suggest that much of the change in Y-chromosome frequencies in the Netherlands came from genetic drift. This is a process by which certain genetic traits become more or less common over time, simply due to chance, especially in smaller or relatively isolated populations.
To test whether drift alone could account for the changes they observed, the team used population continuity models and statistical simulations. They found that in most cases, the differences between medieval and modern samples could be explained without assuming any major influx of new people.
“The overall picture presented by our analyses is one of a relatively stable population,” they write. “Even when significant variation in haplogroup frequencies is observed between regions and periods, this can usually be attributed to the combined effects of drift, sampling variation and social structure rather than migration or replacement.”
A Patrilocal Society
The study also looked at how Y-chromosomes varied across regions and compared them to patterns in mitochondrial DNA, which is passed from mothers to children. They found that regional differences were much stronger in the Y-chromosome data than in the mitochondrial data. This supports the idea that the medieval Netherlands was a patrilocal society, where men typically stayed in their home communities while women moved for marriage.
“The stronger regional structure in Y-chromosomal versus mitochondrial DNA suggests that the Netherlands was predominantly patrilocal over the past 1,500 years,” the authors explain. “This likely resulted in relatively stable local male lineages, which were reinforced over generations through limited male mobility.”
This social structure would have reinforced regional identities and helped preserve specific male lineages within communities for centuries. It also means that many modern Dutch men may still carry the Y-chromosome of their early medieval ancestors.
Changes in More Modern Times
Interestingly, the study shows that the geographic distribution of Y-chromosome types in the modern Netherlands does not closely match what was found in the early medieval samples. This suggests that today’s regional patterns of male ancestry developed more recently, likely after the Middle Ages.
“Although modern Dutch Y-chromosome diversity appears regionally structured, this structure does not closely resemble that of earlier periods,” the study notes. “Our findings suggest that the current distribution of haplogroups in the Netherlands formed relatively late in history, perhaps in the early modern period.”
This challenges earlier assumptions that today’s genetic regions in the Netherlands reflect deep medieval roots. In reality, many of the distinctions between northern, southern, and central Dutch populations may be only a few centuries old.
A Mysterious Find in Eindhoven
One of the most surprising discoveries in the study came from late medieval Eindhoven. At this site, 13.9 percent of male individuals carried the Y-chromosome haplogroup T-M70. This lineage is extremely rare in Europe today and is more commonly found in parts of the Middle East, Central Asia, and among some Jewish populations.
This unusual concentration raised the question of whether Eindhoven may have had a medieval Jewish community. The researchers examined this possibility by comparing their results to known Jewish and non-Jewish Y-chromosome data.
“Our analyses do not yield conclusive evidence for a Jewish origin,” the authors state, “but the elevated frequency of T-M70 is difficult to explain through drift alone. The presence of this lineage in such high proportions at a single site remains a notable finding, even if its origins are still uncertain.”
No archaeological evidence has been found to confirm the presence of a Jewish community in medieval Eindhoven, but the genetic signal is strong enough to merit further investigation. It could point to a small but distinct group whose history has yet to be fully uncovered.
Regional Connections and Wider Context
The study also compared its results to ancient DNA from outside the Low Countries, including Anglo-Saxon sites in England. While there are some shared haplogroups, the researchers found key differences as well. For instance, the Dutch medieval population had lower levels of haplogroup I1 than their English counterparts, suggesting that Dutch migrants to England may have contributed mostly other lineages.
This finding adds nuance to our understanding of early medieval migrations and shows how even neighbouring regions could develop very different genetic profiles over time.
A Rare Window into the Medieval Past
In all, this study offers one of the most detailed looks yet at the genetic continuity of the Low Countries. It confirms that, for much of the past 1,500 years, the people of the Netherlands stayed largely in place. Local male lineages persisted, shaped more by chance and social customs than by mass migration.
It also highlights how ancient DNA can reveal hidden stories, such as the possible presence of minority communities that left no written or archaeological trace. As DNA research continues to expand, more pieces of the puzzle will fall into place—reshaping how we understand the medieval past and its connection to the present.
The article, “The dutch Y‑chromosome from the early middle ages to present day,” by Eveline Altena, Risha Smeding, Kristiaan J van der Gaag, Rick H de Leeuw, Eileen Vaske, Paul Reusink, Yoan Diekmann, Mark G Thomas and Peter de Knijff, appears in Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. Click here to read this article.
Top Image: 16th-century tapestry made in the Netherlands – Cleveland Museum of Art
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