From Vikings wearing horned helmets to people believing the Earth was flat, the Middle Ages are surrounded by misconceptions. Many of these popular beliefs have little basis in historical reality, while others contain elements of truth that have been exaggerated or misunderstood. Here are 20 common myths about medieval life, warfare, religion and society—and what the historical evidence actually tells us.
1. Medieval People Believed the Earth Was Flat
Picture from a 1550 edition of On the Sphere of the World, the most influential astronomy textbook of 13th-century Europe
Contrary to popular belief, people in the Middle Ages generally understood that the Earth was spherical. This knowledge had been established in antiquity and was preserved and developed by scholars in medieval Europe and the Islamic world. One particularly impressive example is the Persian polymath Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (973–c. 1050), who used mathematics and observations of the horizon to estimate the Earth’s radius. His estimate of it being 6,339 kilometres was only off by 31 kilometres.
The misconception that medieval Europeans believed in a flat Earth gained popularity in the nineteenth century. One influential source was Washington Irving’s A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828), which presented a fictionalised account of Columbus confronting scholars who supposedly believed that he might sail off the edge of the world. In reality, the debates surrounding Columbus concerned the size of the Earth and the distance across the Atlantic, not whether the planet was round.
2. Medieval Lords Had the Right to Sleep with Brides
Artistic interpretations by Jules-Arsène Garnier (1872) and José Martí y Monsó (1871) of the theme where a newly-wed woman is taken away by a feudal lord, while her distraught husband looks on.
One of the more disturbing myths about medieval society is the supposed jus primae noctis, or right of the first night. According to this story, a feudal lord could demand sexual relations with a peasant bride before her husband. Although the idea appears in later literature and political polemics, historians have found no convincing evidence that such a right was generally recognised or enforced in medieval Europe.
Stories about this supposed privilege became particularly popular in later centuries, when they were used to portray feudalism as an oppressive and barbaric system. Medieval lords certainly possessed extensive powers over their tenants, and sexual exploitation did occur, but this should not be confused with a legally established right of the first night. Some medieval records also mention marriage-related payments owed to lords, but these were not evidence of a right to sexual access.
3. Vikings Wore Horned Helmets
A drawing of the Norse god Odin by Carl Emil Doepler around 1880.
The horned helmet has become one of the most recognisable symbols of the Vikings, appearing everywhere from television programmes to sports mascots. Yet there is no archaeological evidence that Viking warriors regularly wore horned helmets in battle. Such protrusions would have offered little practical advantage and could have created problems in combat. Actual Viking Age helmets were designed to protect the head, with the famous example discovered at Gjermundbu in Norway featuring an iron skull and protective fittings around the eyes.
The familiar image of the horned Viking largely emerged during the nineteenth century, when artists and costume designers developed romanticised depictions of the Norse past. One influential figure was Carl Emil Doepler (1824–1905), who designed costumes for Richard Wagner’s operatic cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen. His imaginative headgear included horns and even feathers, and these designs helped establish a visual tradition that other artists enthusiastically copied. Horned helmets did exist in prehistoric Scandinavia, but they belonged to much earlier periods and were not standard Viking battle equipment.
4. Medieval Torture Involved Elaborate Devices
An ‘Iron Maiden’ on display at the Medieval Crime Museum in Rothenburg. Photo by Holger Uwe Schmitt / Wikimedia Commons
Museums and popular entertainment frequently associate medieval justice with elaborate torture devices, including the Iron Maiden, the Pear of Anguish and the Breast Ripper. However, the supposed medieval origins of many of these objects are highly questionable. The Iron Maiden, a human-shaped cabinet supposedly fitted with spikes, became particularly famous during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but surviving examples and descriptions do not establish its use as a medieval torture instrument.
This does not mean that medieval justice was free from cruelty. Torture was employed in certain judicial systems, particularly where Roman-law procedures influenced criminal investigations. Methods could include stretching, suspension and other forms of physical coercion, and punishments could be extremely harsh by modern standards. The distinction is that actual medieval torture practices were often quite different from the elaborate mechanical contraptions displayed in later museums, many of which helped reinforce exaggerated images of medieval brutality.
5. Medieval Scholars Debated Angels Dancing on Pins
Medieval images of angels , like these from the 11th century, depict them with wings and able to fly. British Library Harley MS 603, fol 9r.
This famous question is regularly used to ridicule medieval scholasticism, suggesting that theologians wasted their time discussing absurd and meaningless problems. Yet no known medieval scholastic debate used this precise question, and its familiar form emerged in post-medieval criticism of scholastic philosophy. It became a convenient way for later writers to mock the intellectual pursuits of medieval thinkers.
Medieval theologians did examine questions about angels, including whether spiritual beings occupied physical space and how they could move. Thomas Aquinas, for example, discussed the nature and location of angels in his Summa Theologiae. These discussions were part of wider philosophical debates about matter, space, existence and the relationship between the physical and spiritual worlds. Although the questions may seem unusual today, they were approached through rigorous systems of logic and argument rather than idle speculation.
6. Medieval Knights Locked Their Wives in Chastity Belts
A sketch of a chastity belt from an early 15th century manuscript of “Bellifortis” – perhaps included as a joke.
According to a persistent legend, medieval knights departing for the Crusades locked their wives into metal chastity belts to prevent infidelity during their absence. The story has become a familiar part of popular representations of medieval marriage and sexuality, but there is no reliable evidence that such devices were routinely used for this purpose. Many surviving objects displayed as medieval chastity belts were actually manufactured in later centuries, sometimes as curiosities or museum exhibits.
There is, however, an intriguing medieval reference to something resembling a chastity belt. In Bellifortis, an early fifteenth-century work by the military engineer Conrad Kyeser, an illustration depicts a device described as a girdle worn by Florentine women. Kyeser writes:
“This is the girdle of Florentine ladies, iron and hard, that is closed from the front.”
Historians generally interpret this illustration as a joke directed at Florentine men rather than evidence of an established practice. Stories about chastity belts continued to circulate after the Middle Ages, and by the nineteenth century people were producing supposed medieval examples that reinforced the legend. The familiar image of crusading knights locking up their wives therefore owes much more to later fantasies than to historical reality.
7. Medieval People Drank Beer Because Water Was Unsafe
Medieval men drinking – British Library MS Additional 27695 f. 14
It is often claimed that medieval Europeans avoided drinking water because it was invariably contaminated, relying instead on beer and wine. In reality, people throughout the Middle Ages regularly drank water, and medieval communities understood the importance of obtaining clean supplies. Towns invested in wells, fountains, conduits and other water systems, while medical writers discussed the qualities of drinking water and the importance of choosing healthy sources. People certainly recognised that some water was polluted and should be avoided, but that did not mean all water was considered unsafe.
Beer and wine were important beverages, and in some places low-strength ale was consumed frequently. However, people drank these beverages for a variety of reasons, including taste, nutrition, social customs and local availability. Medieval writers also recognised the health benefits of drinking good water, even if it was sometimes considered less appealing than wine or beer. Water quality varied considerably, particularly in densely populated towns, but the notion that medieval people universally avoided water because it was dangerous is false.
Neuschwanstein Castle in Bavaria, Germany, looks like a medieval fortress, but construction only began in 1869 under King Ludwig II. Photo by Thomas Wolf / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0 DE.
With its soaring towers, dramatic mountain setting and romantic architecture, Neuschwanstein Castle in Bavaria looks like something straight out of the Middle Ages. It is frequently presented as one of Europe’s most beautiful medieval castles, but construction actually began in 1869 under King Ludwig II of Bavaria. The castle was inspired by romanticised visions of medieval Germany, particularly its legends, literature and architecture, and was intended primarily as a royal retreat rather than a functioning defensive fortress.
Its design incorporated historical styles while making use of nineteenth-century building techniques and modern comforts. Unlike genuine medieval fortifications, which were designed with military requirements in mind, Neuschwanstein’s towers, walls and interiors were created largely for their visual and symbolic effect. It remains one of the most famous examples of how nineteenth-century Romanticism shaped modern ideas about what a medieval castle should look like.
9. Most Medieval People Died Before Turning 30
Death of Amalric – BnF MS Francais 9084 f.290v
Life expectancy figures for medieval populations are frequently misunderstood. Estimates suggesting that average life expectancy at birth was around 30 years have led many people to assume that reaching 40 or 50 was exceptionally rare. In reality, high infant and childhood mortality substantially reduced average life expectancy at birth, as many children died from illness, malnutrition and other causes before reaching adulthood.
Those who survived childhood could live considerably longer, and medieval records include numerous individuals who reached their 50s, 60s and occasionally their 70s or beyond. This does not mean that most medieval adults could expect to live into their 70s, since life expectancy depended on factors including wealth, occupation, location, disease and exposure to violence. The important distinction is between life expectancy at birth and the remaining life expectancy of someone who had already survived into adulthood. A low average lifespan did not mean that medieval people were considered elderly at 30.
10. Medieval People Ate Without Cutlery
French steel plated fork and knife – 1500-1600
Popular depictions of medieval feasts often show people tearing apart food with their bare hands. Although eating with one’s fingers was perfectly acceptable in many circumstances, medieval diners also used utensils. Knives and spoons were widespread throughout the medieval world, with individuals often carrying their own knives, while spoons could be made from wood, horn, metal or other materials.
Forks have a more complicated history. They were known in the Byzantine world and appeared in parts of medieval Italy, particularly among wealthy households, but their adoption as ordinary table utensils was gradual. Medieval dining also involved established rules of etiquette, with people expected to wash their hands, handle shared food appropriately and observe social conventions at the table. Rather than being an age without table manners, the Middle Ages produced extensive literature explaining how people should behave while eating.
11. Medieval People Never Travelled Far from Home
British Library MS Egerton 1069 f. 145
The idea that medieval people spent their entire lives within a few miles of their birthplace is another popular misconception. Although many people had limited opportunities to travel, movement was an important feature of medieval society. Merchants travelled between towns and across international trading networks, while pilgrims undertook journeys to religious destinations such as Rome, Jerusalem, Santiago de Compostela and Mecca. Soldiers, sailors, diplomats, scholars, craftspeople and religious figures also travelled extensively, and medieval universities attracted students from distant regions.
Some individuals undertook extraordinary journeys. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta (1304–1368/69) visited regions across Africa, Asia and the Middle East, while the Venetian merchant Marco Polo (1254–1324) became famous for his account of travels through Asia. Of course, the ability to travel varied enormously according to wealth, occupation, gender and social status. Many rural inhabitants remained close to home for much of their lives, but medieval societies were far more mobile and interconnected than is often imagined.
12. Medieval People Rarely Bathed
Bas-de-page scene of a man bathing in a tub, with attendants – British Library MS Royal 13 B. VIII, f.28v
Medieval Europeans are frequently depicted as filthy people who avoided bathing and paid little attention to personal hygiene. Historical evidence tells a different story, as bathing, washing and grooming were familiar activities throughout the Middle Ages, although practices varied considerably between regions, periods and social groups. Public bathhouses operated in many medieval European towns, including Paris, where records from the late thirteenth century identify dozens of establishments. Similar facilities could be found in German, Italian and other European cities.
Bathing was also important in the Islamic world, where public bathhouses, known as hammams, served both hygienic and social functions. Medieval medical writers regularly discussed cleanliness and its relationship to health, while archaeological excavations have uncovered combs, razors, tweezers and other grooming implements. None of this means that medieval cities enjoyed modern sanitation standards, as waste disposal, overcrowding and contaminated water could present serious problems. Nevertheless, the idea that medieval people were indifferent to cleanliness is misleading.
In this engraving, a witch concocts an evil brew in the company of strange beasts. “The Witch (Night Piece),” 1626. Artist: Jan van de Velde. Courtesy of the Cleveland Museum of Art.
Witch trials are commonly associated with the medieval period, particularly in films and popular fiction. However, the largest European witch hunts actually took place after the Middle Ages. Beliefs about harmful magic, sorcery and witchcraft existed throughout medieval history, with early medieval laws addressing accusations of magical wrongdoing and religious authorities debating the reality and dangers of supernatural practices.
During the later Middle Ages, particularly from the fifteenth century onwards, some European theologians and legal authorities increasingly developed the idea that witches formed organised groups working with demons. One influential text was the Malleus Maleficarum, published in 1486–1487, which advocated the prosecution of suspected witches. However, the most intensive period of European witch hunting occurred between approximately 1560 and 1650, with prosecutions continuing in some regions into the eighteenth century. Historians generally estimate that between 40,000 and 60,000 people were executed for witchcraft during the early modern European witch hunts, making this primarily an early modern rather than a medieval phenomenon.
Fear of witches and witchcraft remains with us today. It is likely that more people have been condemned and killed for witchcraft in the 21st century than there were in the entire Middle Ages.
14. Everyone in the Middle Ages Was Deeply Religious
Bibliothèque Alcazar BM MS.111 fol. 143r
Religion played a central role in many medieval societies, influencing politics, education, law, art and everyday life. However, it would be a mistake to assume that everyone was equally devout or unquestioningly accepted religious teachings. Medieval religious authorities frequently complained about people neglecting religious obligations, behaving irreverently during services or ignoring moral instructions, suggesting that religious observance was far from uniform.
There were also substantial disagreements within religious communities. Medieval Christianity experienced numerous theological controversies, reform movements and disputes over religious authority, while similar intellectual and religious debates occurred within Islamic and Jewish communities. Ordinary people could hold beliefs and follow customs that differed from official religious teachings, and religious observance varied according to individual circumstances and local traditions. This does not mean that medieval societies were secular in the modern sense, but people displayed a wide range of religious attitudes, from intense devotion to indifference, scepticism and open disagreement.
15. Medieval Cooks Used Spices to Hide Rotten Meat
Cooking over the hearth. The carcass of a rabbit is hanging from a hook on the wall. Barthélémy l’Anglais, Le Livre des propriétés des choses, 15th century. Paris, Biblioteque nationale Département des manuscrits, Français 218, folio 373
One of the more persistent myths about medieval food is that cooks used large quantities of spices to disguise the taste and smell of rotten meat. Interestingly, this misconception can be traced in part to a much more recent publication: The Englishman’s Food: Five Centuries of English Diet, written by J. C. Drummond and Anne Wilbraham and first published in 1939. The authors discussed fourteenth-century London regulations prohibiting the sale of spoiled meat and interpreted them as evidence that rotten meat was a widespread problem. They also drew upon a recipe from 1594, which they misunderstood as an example of using spices to disguise meat that had gone bad.
The reasoning is questionable. Medieval towns certainly had problems with food quality, but the existence of regulations against selling spoiled meat demonstrates that authorities recognised the issue and attempted to prevent it. Furthermore, the 1594 recipe belongs to the early modern period rather than the Middle Ages. These examples do not establish that medieval cooks routinely served rotten meat, much less that they deliberately concealed it beneath expensive seasonings.
Spices such as pepper, cinnamon, ginger, cloves and saffron were valuable commodities, often imported over considerable distances. Wealthy households used them because they added flavour, colour and prestige to elaborate dishes, not because they needed to conceal spoiled ingredients. Surviving medieval cookbooks contain a remarkable variety of recipes combining meats, vegetables, herbs, spices and sauces, sometimes in combinations that seem unusual to modern tastes. If anything, wealthy medieval diners can be accused of enjoying exceptionally elaborate cooking rather than having an appetite for rotten food.
16. Medieval Battles Were Chaotic Free-for-Alls
Battle of Bevershoutsveld in Froissart’s Chronicles
It seems that almost every film featuring a medieval battle includes a scene in which two armies charge towards one another before dissolving into an enormous free-for-all. Soldiers pair off against individual opponents, formations disappear, and the opposing commanders somehow manage to find each other in the middle of the fighting for a dramatic confrontation. While such scenes make for exciting entertainment, they rarely provide an accurate picture of how medieval armies fought.
Medieval warfare involved considerable planning, coordination and tactical decision-making. Infantry often fought in organised formations, while cavalry attacks required discipline and careful timing. Archers and crossbowmen provided missile support, and commanders attempted to exploit terrain, morale and weaknesses in enemy formations. At the Battle of Hastings in 1066, for example, Norman cavalry, infantry and archers confronted an English army holding a defensive position on elevated ground. At Bannockburn in 1314, Scottish forces used formations of spearmen known as schiltrons to resist English cavalry and help secure victory.
Moreover, large-scale pitched battles were relatively uncommon compared with other forms of warfare. Medieval armies spent much of their time conducting sieges, raiding enemy territory, protecting supply routes and attempting to control strategically important locations. Battles could certainly become chaotic, especially when formations broke or soldiers fled, but medieval warfare was far more sophisticated than the enormous brawls commonly depicted in films.
17. Medieval Societies Were Isolated and Did Not Mix
British Library MS Harley 2278 fol. 29v
Popular images of the Middle Ages sometimes suggest that individual kingdoms and regions were populated almost entirely by people of a single background. According to this misconception, only English people lived in England, only Egyptians lived in Egypt, and communities rarely encountered outsiders. Yet a closer examination of historical sources, archaeological discoveries and genetic evidence reveals a much more complicated picture of medieval populations.
Throughout the Middle Ages, people moved between regions for numerous reasons, including warfare, slavery, trade, religious pilgrimage and the search for better opportunities. Sometimes these movements involved individuals or families, while at other times entire groups migrated and settled in new territories. Major cities such as Constantinople, Baghdad, Cairo and Venice attracted merchants, travellers and residents from distant places, creating communities with varied languages, religions and cultural backgrounds. Even medieval England, often imagined as relatively isolated, had connections with continental Europe and beyond.
Genetic research has added another dimension to our understanding of these movements, revealing evidence of migration and population mixing that is not always apparent in written sources. This diversity was not distributed equally, and some rural communities remained relatively isolated while major trading centres could be remarkably cosmopolitan. Nevertheless, the idea that medieval societies were uniformly homogeneous and rarely interacted with outsiders does not withstand scrutiny.
18. Medieval Knights Always Followed the Code of Chivalry
British Library MS Yates Thompson 19 f. 65
One of the most enduring images of the Middle Ages is the knight on horseback, armed with a lance or sword and dedicated to a strict code of honour. According to popular tradition, knights were expected to serve their lords faithfully, protect women and the weak, fight courageously and behave with courtesy towards their opponents. There certainly was such a thing as chivalry, but it was not a single, universally accepted code of conduct that every medieval knight followed.
The meaning of chivalry evolved throughout the Middle Ages and could encompass military courage, loyalty, generosity, religious devotion and appropriate behaviour towards other members of the nobility. Some knights and writers, including Ramon Llull and Geoffroi de Charny, explored the ideals and responsibilities associated with knighthood. Medieval romances also presented fictional examples of honourable knights, helping shape expectations about how members of the warrior aristocracy should behave.
In practice, however, knights were military professionals whose activities frequently involved violence, raiding, pillaging and the pursuit of wealth or political advantage. Their conduct could fall far short of the ideals celebrated in chivalric literature, and even the meaning of honourable behaviour varied according to circumstances. Chivalry is therefore better understood as an evolving collection of ideals and expectations rather than a rigid set of rules consistently obeyed by medieval warriors.
19. The Medieval Church Was Entirely Corrupt and Evil
Medieval Bishop – British Library Add. 39636, f. 50
Modern films, television programmes and video games frequently portray the medieval Catholic Church as a corrupt and sinister institution. Popes, bishops and priests often appear as villains who manipulate political events, suppress knowledge or exploit ordinary believers for personal gain. Such portrayals reflect a broader tendency to view powerful institutions with suspicion, but they can also create an overly simplistic picture of the Church’s role in medieval society.
There were certainly cases of corruption, abuse of power and criminal behaviour among medieval religious officials. The Church was a major political and economic institution, and its leaders could become deeply involved in struggles over wealth, territory and authority. Some religious authorities also supported persecution and coercive measures against those they regarded as heretics or religious outsiders. These aspects of medieval Church history should not be ignored or minimised.
However, it would be equally misleading to suggest that everyone within the Church was motivated by greed or the desire for power. Many medieval clergy and members of religious orders were sincere believers who devoted themselves to spiritual life, education, charity and the care of their communities. Monasteries preserved manuscripts and maintained libraries, religious institutions supported hospitals and poor relief, and cathedral schools helped lay the foundations for medieval universities. The Church was also an important patron of art, architecture and scholarship.
The medieval Church was neither uniformly benevolent nor uniformly evil. It was an enormous and complex institution encompassing individuals with different motivations, beliefs and ambitions, and its history includes both remarkable achievements and serious abuses of power. Reducing it to a collection of villains may work well in popular entertainment, but it does little to explain its actual place in medieval society.
20. Plague Doctors Wore Beaked Masks During the Black Death
The Doctor Schnabel of Rome, a seventeenth-century engraving by Paul Fürst depicting a plague doctor wearing the distinctive beaked mask. The costume dates from the early modern period, not the medieval Black Death. Wikimedia Commons.
Among the costumes commonly offered for Halloween is the so-called Medieval Plague Doctor, dressed in a long coat, gloves and a mask featuring an enormous birdlike beak. It is a strange and somewhat frightening image, and descriptions frequently claim that physicians wore these outfits while treating victims of the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century. The costume was supposedly designed to protect doctors from infection, with the beak containing aromatic substances intended to counteract dangerous air.
However, there is no convincing evidence that doctors treating the fourteenth-century Black Death wore these distinctive masks. The familiar beaked plague-doctor outfit first appeared in written descriptions and illustrations during the seventeenth century, long after the medieval period had ended. It may have been worn by some physicians in parts of northern Italy and France, reflecting contemporary medical theories about disease transmission and the dangers of corrupted air.
The unusual appearance of the costume also made it an object of mockery and satire. Over time, its distinctive design became increasingly associated with plague outbreaks in general, and eventually with the medieval Black Death in particular.
Why do we believe so many myths about the Middle Ages?
Looking at these 20 myths, one recurring theme becomes clear: modern societies have often wanted to believe that they are fundamentally different from, and superior to, the people who lived centuries earlier. Renaissance writers, Enlightenment thinkers and nineteenth-century historians frequently portrayed the Middle Ages as an era of ignorance, cruelty and backwardness, sometimes to emphasise the supposed achievements of their own times. These attitudes helped establish stereotypes that have survived into modern popular culture.
Films, television programmes, novels and video games have continued to reinforce many of these misconceptions, often favouring familiar images over historical accuracy. The result is a version of medieval history populated by filthy peasants, brutal knights, ignorant scholars and sinister religious officials. Yet the historical evidence reveals a far more complicated world, one filled with intellectual achievements, technological developments, cultural exchanges and individuals whose experiences cannot easily be reduced to modern stereotypes.
The Middle Ages were certainly not an idealised age of noble knights and peaceful communities, but neither were they simply a thousand years of ignorance and barbarism. Understanding medieval history requires looking beyond these familiar myths and examining what people actually wrote, built, believed and did. The reality is often much more interesting than the misconceptions.
From Vikings wearing horned helmets to people believing the Earth was flat, the Middle Ages are surrounded by misconceptions. Many of these popular beliefs have little basis in historical reality, while others contain elements of truth that have been exaggerated or misunderstood. Here are 20 common myths about medieval life, warfare, religion and society—and what the historical evidence actually tells us.
1. Medieval People Believed the Earth Was Flat
Contrary to popular belief, people in the Middle Ages generally understood that the Earth was spherical. This knowledge had been established in antiquity and was preserved and developed by scholars in medieval Europe and the Islamic world. One particularly impressive example is the Persian polymath Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (973–c. 1050), who used mathematics and observations of the horizon to estimate the Earth’s radius. His estimate of it being 6,339 kilometres was only off by 31 kilometres.
The misconception that medieval Europeans believed in a flat Earth gained popularity in the nineteenth century. One influential source was Washington Irving’s A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828), which presented a fictionalised account of Columbus confronting scholars who supposedly believed that he might sail off the edge of the world. In reality, the debates surrounding Columbus concerned the size of the Earth and the distance across the Atlantic, not whether the planet was round.
2. Medieval Lords Had the Right to Sleep with Brides
One of the more disturbing myths about medieval society is the supposed jus primae noctis, or right of the first night. According to this story, a feudal lord could demand sexual relations with a peasant bride before her husband. Although the idea appears in later literature and political polemics, historians have found no convincing evidence that such a right was generally recognised or enforced in medieval Europe.
Stories about this supposed privilege became particularly popular in later centuries, when they were used to portray feudalism as an oppressive and barbaric system. Medieval lords certainly possessed extensive powers over their tenants, and sexual exploitation did occur, but this should not be confused with a legally established right of the first night. Some medieval records also mention marriage-related payments owed to lords, but these were not evidence of a right to sexual access.
3. Vikings Wore Horned Helmets
The horned helmet has become one of the most recognisable symbols of the Vikings, appearing everywhere from television programmes to sports mascots. Yet there is no archaeological evidence that Viking warriors regularly wore horned helmets in battle. Such protrusions would have offered little practical advantage and could have created problems in combat. Actual Viking Age helmets were designed to protect the head, with the famous example discovered at Gjermundbu in Norway featuring an iron skull and protective fittings around the eyes.
The familiar image of the horned Viking largely emerged during the nineteenth century, when artists and costume designers developed romanticised depictions of the Norse past. One influential figure was Carl Emil Doepler (1824–1905), who designed costumes for Richard Wagner’s operatic cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen. His imaginative headgear included horns and even feathers, and these designs helped establish a visual tradition that other artists enthusiastically copied. Horned helmets did exist in prehistoric Scandinavia, but they belonged to much earlier periods and were not standard Viking battle equipment.
4. Medieval Torture Involved Elaborate Devices
Museums and popular entertainment frequently associate medieval justice with elaborate torture devices, including the Iron Maiden, the Pear of Anguish and the Breast Ripper. However, the supposed medieval origins of many of these objects are highly questionable. The Iron Maiden, a human-shaped cabinet supposedly fitted with spikes, became particularly famous during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but surviving examples and descriptions do not establish its use as a medieval torture instrument.
This does not mean that medieval justice was free from cruelty. Torture was employed in certain judicial systems, particularly where Roman-law procedures influenced criminal investigations. Methods could include stretching, suspension and other forms of physical coercion, and punishments could be extremely harsh by modern standards. The distinction is that actual medieval torture practices were often quite different from the elaborate mechanical contraptions displayed in later museums, many of which helped reinforce exaggerated images of medieval brutality.
Read more: Why Medieval Torture Devices are Not Medieval
5. Medieval Scholars Debated Angels Dancing on Pins
This famous question is regularly used to ridicule medieval scholasticism, suggesting that theologians wasted their time discussing absurd and meaningless problems. Yet no known medieval scholastic debate used this precise question, and its familiar form emerged in post-medieval criticism of scholastic philosophy. It became a convenient way for later writers to mock the intellectual pursuits of medieval thinkers.
Medieval theologians did examine questions about angels, including whether spiritual beings occupied physical space and how they could move. Thomas Aquinas, for example, discussed the nature and location of angels in his Summa Theologiae. These discussions were part of wider philosophical debates about matter, space, existence and the relationship between the physical and spiritual worlds. Although the questions may seem unusual today, they were approached through rigorous systems of logic and argument rather than idle speculation.
6. Medieval Knights Locked Their Wives in Chastity Belts
According to a persistent legend, medieval knights departing for the Crusades locked their wives into metal chastity belts to prevent infidelity during their absence. The story has become a familiar part of popular representations of medieval marriage and sexuality, but there is no reliable evidence that such devices were routinely used for this purpose. Many surviving objects displayed as medieval chastity belts were actually manufactured in later centuries, sometimes as curiosities or museum exhibits.
There is, however, an intriguing medieval reference to something resembling a chastity belt. In Bellifortis, an early fifteenth-century work by the military engineer Conrad Kyeser, an illustration depicts a device described as a girdle worn by Florentine women. Kyeser writes:
“This is the girdle of Florentine ladies, iron and hard, that is closed from the front.”
Historians generally interpret this illustration as a joke directed at Florentine men rather than evidence of an established practice. Stories about chastity belts continued to circulate after the Middle Ages, and by the nineteenth century people were producing supposed medieval examples that reinforced the legend. The familiar image of crusading knights locking up their wives therefore owes much more to later fantasies than to historical reality.
7. Medieval People Drank Beer Because Water Was Unsafe
It is often claimed that medieval Europeans avoided drinking water because it was invariably contaminated, relying instead on beer and wine. In reality, people throughout the Middle Ages regularly drank water, and medieval communities understood the importance of obtaining clean supplies. Towns invested in wells, fountains, conduits and other water systems, while medical writers discussed the qualities of drinking water and the importance of choosing healthy sources. People certainly recognised that some water was polluted and should be avoided, but that did not mean all water was considered unsafe.
Beer and wine were important beverages, and in some places low-strength ale was consumed frequently. However, people drank these beverages for a variety of reasons, including taste, nutrition, social customs and local availability. Medieval writers also recognised the health benefits of drinking good water, even if it was sometimes considered less appealing than wine or beer. Water quality varied considerably, particularly in densely populated towns, but the notion that medieval people universally avoided water because it was dangerous is false.
Read more: Did Medieval People Drink Water?
8. Neuschwanstein Is a Medieval Castle
With its soaring towers, dramatic mountain setting and romantic architecture, Neuschwanstein Castle in Bavaria looks like something straight out of the Middle Ages. It is frequently presented as one of Europe’s most beautiful medieval castles, but construction actually began in 1869 under King Ludwig II of Bavaria. The castle was inspired by romanticised visions of medieval Germany, particularly its legends, literature and architecture, and was intended primarily as a royal retreat rather than a functioning defensive fortress.
Its design incorporated historical styles while making use of nineteenth-century building techniques and modern comforts. Unlike genuine medieval fortifications, which were designed with military requirements in mind, Neuschwanstein’s towers, walls and interiors were created largely for their visual and symbolic effect. It remains one of the most famous examples of how nineteenth-century Romanticism shaped modern ideas about what a medieval castle should look like.
9. Most Medieval People Died Before Turning 30
Life expectancy figures for medieval populations are frequently misunderstood. Estimates suggesting that average life expectancy at birth was around 30 years have led many people to assume that reaching 40 or 50 was exceptionally rare. In reality, high infant and childhood mortality substantially reduced average life expectancy at birth, as many children died from illness, malnutrition and other causes before reaching adulthood.
Those who survived childhood could live considerably longer, and medieval records include numerous individuals who reached their 50s, 60s and occasionally their 70s or beyond. This does not mean that most medieval adults could expect to live into their 70s, since life expectancy depended on factors including wealth, occupation, location, disease and exposure to violence. The important distinction is between life expectancy at birth and the remaining life expectancy of someone who had already survived into adulthood. A low average lifespan did not mean that medieval people were considered elderly at 30.
10. Medieval People Ate Without Cutlery
Popular depictions of medieval feasts often show people tearing apart food with their bare hands. Although eating with one’s fingers was perfectly acceptable in many circumstances, medieval diners also used utensils. Knives and spoons were widespread throughout the medieval world, with individuals often carrying their own knives, while spoons could be made from wood, horn, metal or other materials.
Forks have a more complicated history. They were known in the Byzantine world and appeared in parts of medieval Italy, particularly among wealthy households, but their adoption as ordinary table utensils was gradual. Medieval dining also involved established rules of etiquette, with people expected to wash their hands, handle shared food appropriately and observe social conventions at the table. Rather than being an age without table manners, the Middle Ages produced extensive literature explaining how people should behave while eating.
11. Medieval People Never Travelled Far from Home
The idea that medieval people spent their entire lives within a few miles of their birthplace is another popular misconception. Although many people had limited opportunities to travel, movement was an important feature of medieval society. Merchants travelled between towns and across international trading networks, while pilgrims undertook journeys to religious destinations such as Rome, Jerusalem, Santiago de Compostela and Mecca. Soldiers, sailors, diplomats, scholars, craftspeople and religious figures also travelled extensively, and medieval universities attracted students from distant regions.
Some individuals undertook extraordinary journeys. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta (1304–1368/69) visited regions across Africa, Asia and the Middle East, while the Venetian merchant Marco Polo (1254–1324) became famous for his account of travels through Asia. Of course, the ability to travel varied enormously according to wealth, occupation, gender and social status. Many rural inhabitants remained close to home for much of their lives, but medieval societies were far more mobile and interconnected than is often imagined.
12. Medieval People Rarely Bathed
Medieval Europeans are frequently depicted as filthy people who avoided bathing and paid little attention to personal hygiene. Historical evidence tells a different story, as bathing, washing and grooming were familiar activities throughout the Middle Ages, although practices varied considerably between regions, periods and social groups. Public bathhouses operated in many medieval European towns, including Paris, where records from the late thirteenth century identify dozens of establishments. Similar facilities could be found in German, Italian and other European cities.
Bathing was also important in the Islamic world, where public bathhouses, known as hammams, served both hygienic and social functions. Medieval medical writers regularly discussed cleanliness and its relationship to health, while archaeological excavations have uncovered combs, razors, tweezers and other grooming implements. None of this means that medieval cities enjoyed modern sanitation standards, as waste disposal, overcrowding and contaminated water could present serious problems. Nevertheless, the idea that medieval people were indifferent to cleanliness is misleading.
Read more: Did people in the Middle Ages take baths?
13. Most Witch Hunts Happened in the Middle Ages
Witch trials are commonly associated with the medieval period, particularly in films and popular fiction. However, the largest European witch hunts actually took place after the Middle Ages. Beliefs about harmful magic, sorcery and witchcraft existed throughout medieval history, with early medieval laws addressing accusations of magical wrongdoing and religious authorities debating the reality and dangers of supernatural practices.
During the later Middle Ages, particularly from the fifteenth century onwards, some European theologians and legal authorities increasingly developed the idea that witches formed organised groups working with demons. One influential text was the Malleus Maleficarum, published in 1486–1487, which advocated the prosecution of suspected witches. However, the most intensive period of European witch hunting occurred between approximately 1560 and 1650, with prosecutions continuing in some regions into the eighteenth century. Historians generally estimate that between 40,000 and 60,000 people were executed for witchcraft during the early modern European witch hunts, making this primarily an early modern rather than a medieval phenomenon.
Fear of witches and witchcraft remains with us today. It is likely that more people have been condemned and killed for witchcraft in the 21st century than there were in the entire Middle Ages.
14. Everyone in the Middle Ages Was Deeply Religious
Religion played a central role in many medieval societies, influencing politics, education, law, art and everyday life. However, it would be a mistake to assume that everyone was equally devout or unquestioningly accepted religious teachings. Medieval religious authorities frequently complained about people neglecting religious obligations, behaving irreverently during services or ignoring moral instructions, suggesting that religious observance was far from uniform.
There were also substantial disagreements within religious communities. Medieval Christianity experienced numerous theological controversies, reform movements and disputes over religious authority, while similar intellectual and religious debates occurred within Islamic and Jewish communities. Ordinary people could hold beliefs and follow customs that differed from official religious teachings, and religious observance varied according to individual circumstances and local traditions. This does not mean that medieval societies were secular in the modern sense, but people displayed a wide range of religious attitudes, from intense devotion to indifference, scepticism and open disagreement.
15. Medieval Cooks Used Spices to Hide Rotten Meat
Barthélémy l’Anglais, Le Livre des propriétés des choses, 15th century. Paris, Biblioteque nationale Département des manuscrits, Français 218, folio 373
One of the more persistent myths about medieval food is that cooks used large quantities of spices to disguise the taste and smell of rotten meat. Interestingly, this misconception can be traced in part to a much more recent publication: The Englishman’s Food: Five Centuries of English Diet, written by J. C. Drummond and Anne Wilbraham and first published in 1939. The authors discussed fourteenth-century London regulations prohibiting the sale of spoiled meat and interpreted them as evidence that rotten meat was a widespread problem. They also drew upon a recipe from 1594, which they misunderstood as an example of using spices to disguise meat that had gone bad.
The reasoning is questionable. Medieval towns certainly had problems with food quality, but the existence of regulations against selling spoiled meat demonstrates that authorities recognised the issue and attempted to prevent it. Furthermore, the 1594 recipe belongs to the early modern period rather than the Middle Ages. These examples do not establish that medieval cooks routinely served rotten meat, much less that they deliberately concealed it beneath expensive seasonings.
Spices such as pepper, cinnamon, ginger, cloves and saffron were valuable commodities, often imported over considerable distances. Wealthy households used them because they added flavour, colour and prestige to elaborate dishes, not because they needed to conceal spoiled ingredients. Surviving medieval cookbooks contain a remarkable variety of recipes combining meats, vegetables, herbs, spices and sauces, sometimes in combinations that seem unusual to modern tastes. If anything, wealthy medieval diners can be accused of enjoying exceptionally elaborate cooking rather than having an appetite for rotten food.
16. Medieval Battles Were Chaotic Free-for-Alls
It seems that almost every film featuring a medieval battle includes a scene in which two armies charge towards one another before dissolving into an enormous free-for-all. Soldiers pair off against individual opponents, formations disappear, and the opposing commanders somehow manage to find each other in the middle of the fighting for a dramatic confrontation. While such scenes make for exciting entertainment, they rarely provide an accurate picture of how medieval armies fought.
Medieval warfare involved considerable planning, coordination and tactical decision-making. Infantry often fought in organised formations, while cavalry attacks required discipline and careful timing. Archers and crossbowmen provided missile support, and commanders attempted to exploit terrain, morale and weaknesses in enemy formations. At the Battle of Hastings in 1066, for example, Norman cavalry, infantry and archers confronted an English army holding a defensive position on elevated ground. At Bannockburn in 1314, Scottish forces used formations of spearmen known as schiltrons to resist English cavalry and help secure victory.
Moreover, large-scale pitched battles were relatively uncommon compared with other forms of warfare. Medieval armies spent much of their time conducting sieges, raiding enemy territory, protecting supply routes and attempting to control strategically important locations. Battles could certainly become chaotic, especially when formations broke or soldiers fled, but medieval warfare was far more sophisticated than the enormous brawls commonly depicted in films.
17. Medieval Societies Were Isolated and Did Not Mix
Popular images of the Middle Ages sometimes suggest that individual kingdoms and regions were populated almost entirely by people of a single background. According to this misconception, only English people lived in England, only Egyptians lived in Egypt, and communities rarely encountered outsiders. Yet a closer examination of historical sources, archaeological discoveries and genetic evidence reveals a much more complicated picture of medieval populations.
Throughout the Middle Ages, people moved between regions for numerous reasons, including warfare, slavery, trade, religious pilgrimage and the search for better opportunities. Sometimes these movements involved individuals or families, while at other times entire groups migrated and settled in new territories. Major cities such as Constantinople, Baghdad, Cairo and Venice attracted merchants, travellers and residents from distant places, creating communities with varied languages, religions and cultural backgrounds. Even medieval England, often imagined as relatively isolated, had connections with continental Europe and beyond.
Genetic research has added another dimension to our understanding of these movements, revealing evidence of migration and population mixing that is not always apparent in written sources. This diversity was not distributed equally, and some rural communities remained relatively isolated while major trading centres could be remarkably cosmopolitan. Nevertheless, the idea that medieval societies were uniformly homogeneous and rarely interacted with outsiders does not withstand scrutiny.
18. Medieval Knights Always Followed the Code of Chivalry
One of the most enduring images of the Middle Ages is the knight on horseback, armed with a lance or sword and dedicated to a strict code of honour. According to popular tradition, knights were expected to serve their lords faithfully, protect women and the weak, fight courageously and behave with courtesy towards their opponents. There certainly was such a thing as chivalry, but it was not a single, universally accepted code of conduct that every medieval knight followed.
The meaning of chivalry evolved throughout the Middle Ages and could encompass military courage, loyalty, generosity, religious devotion and appropriate behaviour towards other members of the nobility. Some knights and writers, including Ramon Llull and Geoffroi de Charny, explored the ideals and responsibilities associated with knighthood. Medieval romances also presented fictional examples of honourable knights, helping shape expectations about how members of the warrior aristocracy should behave.
In practice, however, knights were military professionals whose activities frequently involved violence, raiding, pillaging and the pursuit of wealth or political advantage. Their conduct could fall far short of the ideals celebrated in chivalric literature, and even the meaning of honourable behaviour varied according to circumstances. Chivalry is therefore better understood as an evolving collection of ideals and expectations rather than a rigid set of rules consistently obeyed by medieval warriors.
Read more: What does chivalry mean?
19. The Medieval Church Was Entirely Corrupt and Evil
Modern films, television programmes and video games frequently portray the medieval Catholic Church as a corrupt and sinister institution. Popes, bishops and priests often appear as villains who manipulate political events, suppress knowledge or exploit ordinary believers for personal gain. Such portrayals reflect a broader tendency to view powerful institutions with suspicion, but they can also create an overly simplistic picture of the Church’s role in medieval society.
There were certainly cases of corruption, abuse of power and criminal behaviour among medieval religious officials. The Church was a major political and economic institution, and its leaders could become deeply involved in struggles over wealth, territory and authority. Some religious authorities also supported persecution and coercive measures against those they regarded as heretics or religious outsiders. These aspects of medieval Church history should not be ignored or minimised.
However, it would be equally misleading to suggest that everyone within the Church was motivated by greed or the desire for power. Many medieval clergy and members of religious orders were sincere believers who devoted themselves to spiritual life, education, charity and the care of their communities. Monasteries preserved manuscripts and maintained libraries, religious institutions supported hospitals and poor relief, and cathedral schools helped lay the foundations for medieval universities. The Church was also an important patron of art, architecture and scholarship.
The medieval Church was neither uniformly benevolent nor uniformly evil. It was an enormous and complex institution encompassing individuals with different motivations, beliefs and ambitions, and its history includes both remarkable achievements and serious abuses of power. Reducing it to a collection of villains may work well in popular entertainment, but it does little to explain its actual place in medieval society.
20. Plague Doctors Wore Beaked Masks During the Black Death
Among the costumes commonly offered for Halloween is the so-called Medieval Plague Doctor, dressed in a long coat, gloves and a mask featuring an enormous birdlike beak. It is a strange and somewhat frightening image, and descriptions frequently claim that physicians wore these outfits while treating victims of the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century. The costume was supposedly designed to protect doctors from infection, with the beak containing aromatic substances intended to counteract dangerous air.
However, there is no convincing evidence that doctors treating the fourteenth-century Black Death wore these distinctive masks. The familiar beaked plague-doctor outfit first appeared in written descriptions and illustrations during the seventeenth century, long after the medieval period had ended. It may have been worn by some physicians in parts of northern Italy and France, reflecting contemporary medical theories about disease transmission and the dangers of corrupted air.
The unusual appearance of the costume also made it an object of mockery and satire. Over time, its distinctive design became increasingly associated with plague outbreaks in general, and eventually with the medieval Black Death in particular.
Why do we believe so many myths about the Middle Ages?
Looking at these 20 myths, one recurring theme becomes clear: modern societies have often wanted to believe that they are fundamentally different from, and superior to, the people who lived centuries earlier. Renaissance writers, Enlightenment thinkers and nineteenth-century historians frequently portrayed the Middle Ages as an era of ignorance, cruelty and backwardness, sometimes to emphasise the supposed achievements of their own times. These attitudes helped establish stereotypes that have survived into modern popular culture.
Films, television programmes, novels and video games have continued to reinforce many of these misconceptions, often favouring familiar images over historical accuracy. The result is a version of medieval history populated by filthy peasants, brutal knights, ignorant scholars and sinister religious officials. Yet the historical evidence reveals a far more complicated world, one filled with intellectual achievements, technological developments, cultural exchanges and individuals whose experiences cannot easily be reduced to modern stereotypes.
The Middle Ages were certainly not an idealised age of noble knights and peaceful communities, but neither were they simply a thousand years of ignorance and barbarism. Understanding medieval history requires looking beyond these familiar myths and examining what people actually wrote, built, believed and did. The reality is often much more interesting than the misconceptions.
Further Readings:
Winston Black, The Middle Ages: Facts and Fictions (ABC-CLIO, 2019).
Danièle Cybulskie, Chivalry and Courtesy: Medieval Manners for a Modern World (Abbeville Press, 2023).
Stephen Harris and Bryon L. Grigsby (eds.), Misconceptions About the Middle Ages (Routledge, 2007).
Kirsten Wolf and Tristan Mueller-Vollmer, The Vikings: Facts and Fictions (ABC-CLIO, 2018).
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