What did people eat in the Middle Ages—before potatoes, corn, or even tomatoes were common in Europe? In Vegetables: A Biography, Evelyne Bloch-Dano traces the rich, and sometimes surprising, history of the vegetables that sustained medieval society. From poor man’s carrots to exotic tomatoes, the book explores how vegetables were cultivated, prepared, and perceived during the Middle Ages.
Originally published in French as La Fabuleuse histoire des légumes in 2008, the book presents the stories of different vegetables with insights spanning science, agriculture, history, culture, and, of course, cooking. Here are some of the vegetables highlighted in the book, with a focus on their medieval roots:
Carrots
Carrot farming in the Tacuinum sanitatis
Carrots have a deep-rooted history that predates the Middle Ages. In the twelfth century, the Andalusian agriculturalist Ibn al-Awwām cited a Syrian agricultural text reporting that farmers in ancient Palestine cultivated both red and yellow varieties—the red being considered more flavourful and tender. These carrots were prepared with vinegar, brine, grains, and vegetables, and even used to make bread when mixed with wheat, rice, or millet flour. Although it is uncertain whether the Romans encountered these colourful varieties, red carrots likely spread westward via trade routes from Afghanistan through Iran, eventually reaching Spain by the thirteenth century.
By the late Middle Ages, red carrots were found in Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, and later in Britain. Pietro de Crescenti described a red root sold in bunches that could be puréed, likely referring to carrots. Renaissance writers often confused carrots with parsnips—Olivier de Serres even claimed the only difference was colour—though others like Nicolas de Bonnefons distinguished between white, yellow, and red varieties, preferring the yellow for its delicate cooking qualities. But for most, the carrot was long considered food for the poor. To “live on carrots” meant to live in poverty, and according to a 17th-century dictionary, the phrase “to shit carrots” was a crude way of describing constipation.
Peas
In the Middle Ages, peas were a staple of the European diet, alongside grains and beans. Often dried for storage, they became a vital resource during famines and lean seasons. Hot mashed peas were sold on the streets and distributed as charitable “pittances” to the poor outside convents—an early form of the soup kitchen. They appeared in many forms: dried, fresh, or mashed with bacon. Guillaume de Villeneuve recorded thirteenth-century Parisian vendors calling out, “Fresh peas in their shells, right off the vine!”—an early reference to sugar peas.
Summer, by Giuseppe Arcimboldo (1527–1593)
Peas were more than just food—they were part of culture and folklore. A medieval proverb declared that a person with peas, rye bread, bacon, wine, and no debts could live contentedly. They were widely grown across England and the Low Countries, especially in Holland, which became known for its prized varieties. In art, they appear in Giuseppe Arcimboldo’s 16th-century portrait Summer, where peas are tucked into the figure’s toothy grin—an enduring symbol of the vegetable’s place in early modern imagination.
Cauliflower
Cauliflower made its way into Western Europe at the end of the fifteenth century, originally known as Syrian cabbage or Cypriot cabbage due to its eastern Mediterranean origins. By the reign of Henry IV of France (1589-1610), it had adopted the Italian name cauli-fiori, which closely resembles the modern English “cauliflower.” Still considered rare at the time, it remained a delicacy in medieval and early modern times and was not widely cultivated in France until the 19th century.
Brussels Sprouts
Brussels sprouts likely originated in Italy but were first widely cultivated in thirteenth-century Belgium. They were grown in the reclaimed marshlands around the commune of Saint-Gilles, just outside Brussels, after the construction of the city’s second set of ramparts. This local adaptation eventually gave the vegetable its enduring name.
Rutabagas
Rutabagas, a hybrid of cabbage and turnip, first appeared in Scandinavia during the Middle Ages. This cold-hardy root vegetable likely emerged through natural crossbreeding and proved well-suited to northern climates. Its name derives from the Swedish rotabaggar, reflecting its Nordic origins and continued popularity in the region.
Parsnips
BnF Latin 6823, fol. 27r
The parsnip was a staple of medieval gardens and cuisine, praised for its hardiness and nutritional value. Its name traces back to Latin and Greek roots—panacem, meaning a universal remedy, and pastinaca, possibly derived from pastus (“food”) or pastinum (“a small hoe”). French sources show the word appearing as early as 1080 in the form pasnaie. Their many regional names, such as “winter carrot,” “wild carrot,” and “white carrot,” reflect both their versatility and confusion with similar roots. Cited by ancient authors and granted pride of place in Le Ménagier de Paris, parsnips remained widespread throughout Europe until the sixteenth century.
Squashes
Casanatense 459, f.086r
Squashes have been part of human life since antiquity, with early mentions by writers such as Pliny and Columella. The Roman cookbook attributed to Apicius includes thirteen recipes for Cucurbitaceae, often involving boiling, frying, and reducing them into purée. Beyond the kitchen, these versatile plants served many practical uses: once dried, their hardened skins could be fashioned into bowls, utensils, masks, birdcages, musical instruments, or drinking vessels. These squashes, especially those from the Lagenaria genus, originated in Africa and spread widely thanks to their buoyant seeds, which could remain viable after a year at sea.
Cardoons and Artichokes
Cardoons were well known in the Roman Empire but largely vanished from most of Europe for nearly a thousand years. They continued to be cultivated in parts of North Africa and Andalusia, where Arab agricultural innovation helped refine the plant. By the eighth century, gardeners were selectively developing both the edible stalks and flower heads, leading to the eventual distinction between the cardoon and the artichoke. The cardoon made its return to Europe around 1300, travelling from Andalusia to Sicily, and later northward through the Rhône Valley into France. Olivier de Serres, a sixteenth-century agronomist, praised Lyon as “a true land of thistles,” where cardoons became a regional speciality. Despite their persistent thorns and towering size—reaching up to nine feet—cardoons were eventually cultivated throughout France and even crossed into England, where they were seen more as ornament than food.
The artichoke, more delicate and rarer than the cardoon, followed a century later. Its name traces back to the Arabic al-harcharf, which evolved into the Spanish alcachofa, the Tuscan carciofo, and eventually the English “artichoke.” It likely entered Italy through Naples, possibly via Navarre under Spanish influence, before spreading to Tuscany, where Filippo Strozzi introduced it in 1466. By the sixteenth century, it was grown in southern France and favoured at elite tables.
Tomatoes
The Spanish brought the tomato back from the Americas, but without any instructions on how to cook it. As a result, people were unsure what to do with it and treated it with caution. From Spain, the tomato travelled to Naples, then up through Italy and into France. But unlike the artichoke, the tomato was slow to gain acceptance. For many years, it was grown mainly as a curiosity (and a mosquito repellant) and not used in everyday cooking.
People were wary of the tomato because of its family background. It belongs to the Solanaceae family, which includes tobacco, potatoes, and some poisonous plants like deadly nightshade and henbane. It even looked like the mandrake, a plant linked to magic and bad luck. These associations made people fear it might be dangerous to eat. In Italy, the botanist Pietro Andrea Mattioli (1501-78) gave it the name “Apple of Peru,” and later called it the “golden apple.” Even so, it would take a long time before the tomato became a regular part of European food.
Cabbages
Harvesting cabbage, Tacuinum Sanitatis, 15th century
Cabbage was a staple food for peasants throughout the Middle Ages. It was easy to grow, simple to store, and could be planted in home gardens, which were not taxed. Over time, cabbage came to symbolise a humble, unfashionable food—one known for its strong smell and unpleasant side effects. Village names like Les Choux (“The Cabbages”) and the sauerkraut-scented Krautergersheim in Alsace reflect just how central it was to daily life.
What did people eat in the Middle Ages—before potatoes, corn, or even tomatoes were common in Europe? In Vegetables: A Biography, Evelyne Bloch-Dano traces the rich, and sometimes surprising, history of the vegetables that sustained medieval society. From poor man’s carrots to exotic tomatoes, the book explores how vegetables were cultivated, prepared, and perceived during the Middle Ages.
Originally published in French as La Fabuleuse histoire des légumes in 2008, the book presents the stories of different vegetables with insights spanning science, agriculture, history, culture, and, of course, cooking. Here are some of the vegetables highlighted in the book, with a focus on their medieval roots:
Carrots
Carrots have a deep-rooted history that predates the Middle Ages. In the twelfth century, the Andalusian agriculturalist Ibn al-Awwām cited a Syrian agricultural text reporting that farmers in ancient Palestine cultivated both red and yellow varieties—the red being considered more flavourful and tender. These carrots were prepared with vinegar, brine, grains, and vegetables, and even used to make bread when mixed with wheat, rice, or millet flour. Although it is uncertain whether the Romans encountered these colourful varieties, red carrots likely spread westward via trade routes from Afghanistan through Iran, eventually reaching Spain by the thirteenth century.
By the late Middle Ages, red carrots were found in Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, and later in Britain. Pietro de Crescenti described a red root sold in bunches that could be puréed, likely referring to carrots. Renaissance writers often confused carrots with parsnips—Olivier de Serres even claimed the only difference was colour—though others like Nicolas de Bonnefons distinguished between white, yellow, and red varieties, preferring the yellow for its delicate cooking qualities. But for most, the carrot was long considered food for the poor. To “live on carrots” meant to live in poverty, and according to a 17th-century dictionary, the phrase “to shit carrots” was a crude way of describing constipation.
Peas
In the Middle Ages, peas were a staple of the European diet, alongside grains and beans. Often dried for storage, they became a vital resource during famines and lean seasons. Hot mashed peas were sold on the streets and distributed as charitable “pittances” to the poor outside convents—an early form of the soup kitchen. They appeared in many forms: dried, fresh, or mashed with bacon. Guillaume de Villeneuve recorded thirteenth-century Parisian vendors calling out, “Fresh peas in their shells, right off the vine!”—an early reference to sugar peas.
Giuseppe Arcimboldo (1527–1593)
Peas were more than just food—they were part of culture and folklore. A medieval proverb declared that a person with peas, rye bread, bacon, wine, and no debts could live contentedly. They were widely grown across England and the Low Countries, especially in Holland, which became known for its prized varieties. In art, they appear in Giuseppe Arcimboldo’s 16th-century portrait Summer, where peas are tucked into the figure’s toothy grin—an enduring symbol of the vegetable’s place in early modern imagination.
Cauliflower
Cauliflower made its way into Western Europe at the end of the fifteenth century, originally known as Syrian cabbage or Cypriot cabbage due to its eastern Mediterranean origins. By the reign of Henry IV of France (1589-1610), it had adopted the Italian name cauli-fiori, which closely resembles the modern English “cauliflower.” Still considered rare at the time, it remained a delicacy in medieval and early modern times and was not widely cultivated in France until the 19th century.
Brussels Sprouts
Brussels sprouts likely originated in Italy but were first widely cultivated in thirteenth-century Belgium. They were grown in the reclaimed marshlands around the commune of Saint-Gilles, just outside Brussels, after the construction of the city’s second set of ramparts. This local adaptation eventually gave the vegetable its enduring name.
Rutabagas
Rutabagas, a hybrid of cabbage and turnip, first appeared in Scandinavia during the Middle Ages. This cold-hardy root vegetable likely emerged through natural crossbreeding and proved well-suited to northern climates. Its name derives from the Swedish rotabaggar, reflecting its Nordic origins and continued popularity in the region.
Parsnips
The parsnip was a staple of medieval gardens and cuisine, praised for its hardiness and nutritional value. Its name traces back to Latin and Greek roots—panacem, meaning a universal remedy, and pastinaca, possibly derived from pastus (“food”) or pastinum (“a small hoe”). French sources show the word appearing as early as 1080 in the form pasnaie. Their many regional names, such as “winter carrot,” “wild carrot,” and “white carrot,” reflect both their versatility and confusion with similar roots. Cited by ancient authors and granted pride of place in Le Ménagier de Paris, parsnips remained widespread throughout Europe until the sixteenth century.
Squashes
Squashes have been part of human life since antiquity, with early mentions by writers such as Pliny and Columella. The Roman cookbook attributed to Apicius includes thirteen recipes for Cucurbitaceae, often involving boiling, frying, and reducing them into purée. Beyond the kitchen, these versatile plants served many practical uses: once dried, their hardened skins could be fashioned into bowls, utensils, masks, birdcages, musical instruments, or drinking vessels. These squashes, especially those from the Lagenaria genus, originated in Africa and spread widely thanks to their buoyant seeds, which could remain viable after a year at sea.
Cardoons and Artichokes
Cardoons were well known in the Roman Empire but largely vanished from most of Europe for nearly a thousand years. They continued to be cultivated in parts of North Africa and Andalusia, where Arab agricultural innovation helped refine the plant. By the eighth century, gardeners were selectively developing both the edible stalks and flower heads, leading to the eventual distinction between the cardoon and the artichoke. The cardoon made its return to Europe around 1300, travelling from Andalusia to Sicily, and later northward through the Rhône Valley into France. Olivier de Serres, a sixteenth-century agronomist, praised Lyon as “a true land of thistles,” where cardoons became a regional speciality. Despite their persistent thorns and towering size—reaching up to nine feet—cardoons were eventually cultivated throughout France and even crossed into England, where they were seen more as ornament than food.
The artichoke, more delicate and rarer than the cardoon, followed a century later. Its name traces back to the Arabic al-harcharf, which evolved into the Spanish alcachofa, the Tuscan carciofo, and eventually the English “artichoke.” It likely entered Italy through Naples, possibly via Navarre under Spanish influence, before spreading to Tuscany, where Filippo Strozzi introduced it in 1466. By the sixteenth century, it was grown in southern France and favoured at elite tables.
Tomatoes
The Spanish brought the tomato back from the Americas, but without any instructions on how to cook it. As a result, people were unsure what to do with it and treated it with caution. From Spain, the tomato travelled to Naples, then up through Italy and into France. But unlike the artichoke, the tomato was slow to gain acceptance. For many years, it was grown mainly as a curiosity (and a mosquito repellant) and not used in everyday cooking.
People were wary of the tomato because of its family background. It belongs to the Solanaceae family, which includes tobacco, potatoes, and some poisonous plants like deadly nightshade and henbane. It even looked like the mandrake, a plant linked to magic and bad luck. These associations made people fear it might be dangerous to eat. In Italy, the botanist Pietro Andrea Mattioli (1501-78) gave it the name “Apple of Peru,” and later called it the “golden apple.” Even so, it would take a long time before the tomato became a regular part of European food.
Cabbages
Cabbage was a staple food for peasants throughout the Middle Ages. It was easy to grow, simple to store, and could be planted in home gardens, which were not taxed. Over time, cabbage came to symbolise a humble, unfashionable food—one known for its strong smell and unpleasant side effects. Village names like Les Choux (“The Cabbages”) and the sauerkraut-scented Krautergersheim in Alsace reflect just how central it was to daily life.
Vegetables: A Biography was published by the University of Chicago Press in 2012. To get a copy, please visit the University of Chicago Press website or buy from Amazon.com.
Top Image: Detail of vegetables from a 16th-century painting by Joachim Beuckelaer (c.1533–1575)
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