Monasteries were at the heart of medieval religious life. Across Europe, thousands of communities were founded where monks and nuns lived lives of prayer, study, and manual labour. Over time, different orders emerged, each with its own rules, priorities, and ideals. Some emphasised strict discipline and solitude, while others focused on education, preaching, or even military service.
One recurring theme throughout the Middle Ages was reform: men and women often sought to return to stricter forms of religious life, inspired by ideals of poverty, simplicity, and spiritual purity. These reform movements gave rise to new monastic orders that would leave a lasting mark on medieval society.
What follows is an introduction to some of the most influential monastic orders of medieval Europe — from the earliest Christian hermits to the militant knights of the Crusades.
Early Christian Monasticism
Monastic life in Christianity began in the East, emerging in Egypt and Syria around the third century. Men and women sought solitary lives devoted to prayer, self-denial, and meditation. St. Anthony of Egypt (d. 356) is considered the father of monasticism, having spent 80 years as a hermit. Over time, hermits began to form small communities for spiritual instruction and shared worship. These early models of monastic settlement gradually spread into Byzantium and Western Europe. In the Byzantine world, Saint Basil the Great (c. 330–379) developed rules that would shape Eastern monastic life for centuries.
Benedictines
The Benedictine Order, founded by St. Benedict in the sixth century, became the most widespread form of monasticism in Western Europe. Known as the Black Monks because of their dark robes, they followed a structured life of prayer, study, and labour. The Rule of St. Benedict provided a practical guide to monastic discipline. Benedictine monasteries played an important role in preserving learning and producing manuscripts, and several medieval popes came from their ranks.
Cluniacs
By the 10th century, some Benedictines sought stricter spiritual focus. In 910, the Abbey of Cluny was established in France as a reform movement within the Benedictine tradition. The Cluniacs emphasised elaborate liturgy, extended periods of prayer, and a rejection of secular interference. Their model was so influential that by the 12th century, nearly 300 monasteries across Europe were affiliated with Cluny and subordinate to its abbot.
Cistercians
Cistercians at work in a detail from the Life of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, illustrated by Jörg Breu the Elder (1500)
Continuing the reform trend, the Cistercian Order was founded in 1098 at Citeaux in France. It promoted a return to the original austerity of Benedictine life, valuing manual labour, self-sufficiency, and simplicity. Cistercian monks wore undyed white habits, earning them the nickname White Monks. Their most famous figure was Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153), a powerful preacher and advisor to kings and popes. By the 15th century, there were over 750 Cistercian monasteries across Europe.
Carthusians
Founded in 1084 in what is now France, the Carthusians followed an especially strict and solitary lifestyle. Monks lived in private cells, gathered only occasionally for communal worship, and dedicated themselves to contemplation and prayer. Despite their isolation, the order grew slowly but steadily, reaching around 200 houses by the late Middle Ages.
Premonstratensians
This order was founded in 1120 by St. Norbert of Xanten in France. Also known as the White Canons, the Premonstratensians combined a monastic life of contemplation with the active duties of preaching, pastoral care, and missionary work. They were particularly involved in converting pagan communities in Eastern Europe.
Trinitarians
The Trinitarian Order, founded in the late 12th century in the Iberian Peninsula, was dedicated to the redemption of Christian captives from Muslim lands. While less focused on monastic isolation, their work aligned with Christian ideals of charity and sacrifice.
Lay Religious Movements
Not all religious life in the Middle Ages took place within formal monastic orders. Several movements developed for laypeople, particularly women, who sought spiritual lives outside the convent walls.
Beguines
A drawing of a Beguine from Des dodes dantz, printed in Lübeck in 1489.
Beguines were women who lived in religious communities without taking formal vows. Emerging in the 12th century in the Low Countries and Germany, they focused on charity, prayer, and simple living. Some were known for their mystical writings, and others faced accusations of heresy from church authorities.
Beghards
The male counterpart to the Beguines, Beghards formed similar lay communities focused on piety and service. Like the Beguines, they did not take lifelong vows and were especially active in urban centres in the Low Countries and France.
Mendicant Orders
Beginning in the 13th century, new religious orders rejected the cloistered life and instead moved among the people. These mendicant orders relied on alms and emphasised preaching, poverty, and education.
Franciscans
Frescos of Saint Francis of Assisi in Chiesa di San Francesco, Lodi, Italy – photo by Mattis / Wikimedia Commons
Founded in 1209 by Francis of Assisi, the Franciscans — also called the Grey Friars or Friars Minor — followed a radical ideal of poverty and humility. They travelled on foot, preached to the poor, and avoided property ownership. Their order grew rapidly and became one of the most influential religious movements of the medieval period.
Dominicans
Founded by St. Dominic in 1216, the Dominicans — or Black Friars — were likewise committed to poverty and preaching. However, they placed a stronger emphasis on education and intellectual training. Many Dominicans taught at universities and became prominent figures in medieval theology and philosophy.
Military Orders
Some monastic orders combined religious devotion with military service, especially during the Crusades. These military orders took vows like monks but also bore arms in defence of Christian territories and pilgrims.
Hospitallers
Also known as the Knights of St. John, the Hospitallers began in the 11th century as a charitable group aiding pilgrims and the sick in Jerusalem. Over time, they evolved into a powerful military force. By the end of the Middle Ages, they were based on the island of Malta and played a key role in resisting Ottoman expansion.
Templars
Templars depicted by Matthew Paris
Founded in 1119, the Knights Templar were created to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land. They became immensely wealthy and powerful, drawing the suspicion of rulers. In 1307, King Philip IV of France arrested Templar leaders, and in 1312 the Pope formally suppressed the order. Several Templars were executed for heresy.
Teutonic Knights
Formed in 1190 during the Third Crusade, the Teutonic Order was a German military order that soon shifted its focus from the Holy Land to Eastern Europe. From the 13th to 15th centuries, they established a powerful state along the Baltic Sea and played a major role in Christianising the region.
Other Orders
Many other smaller monastic groups contributed to medieval religious life. The Carmelites (originally hermits from Mount Carmel), the Augustinians (who followed the Rule of St. Augustine), and the Poor Clares (the female branch of the Franciscans) were all important in various regions and contexts, reflecting the diversity of monastic expression across the Middle Ages.
If you want to know more about monks, nuns and medieval monasticism, please see:
Monasteries were at the heart of medieval religious life. Across Europe, thousands of communities were founded where monks and nuns lived lives of prayer, study, and manual labour. Over time, different orders emerged, each with its own rules, priorities, and ideals. Some emphasised strict discipline and solitude, while others focused on education, preaching, or even military service.
One recurring theme throughout the Middle Ages was reform: men and women often sought to return to stricter forms of religious life, inspired by ideals of poverty, simplicity, and spiritual purity. These reform movements gave rise to new monastic orders that would leave a lasting mark on medieval society.
What follows is an introduction to some of the most influential monastic orders of medieval Europe — from the earliest Christian hermits to the militant knights of the Crusades.
Early Christian Monasticism
Monastic life in Christianity began in the East, emerging in Egypt and Syria around the third century. Men and women sought solitary lives devoted to prayer, self-denial, and meditation. St. Anthony of Egypt (d. 356) is considered the father of monasticism, having spent 80 years as a hermit. Over time, hermits began to form small communities for spiritual instruction and shared worship. These early models of monastic settlement gradually spread into Byzantium and Western Europe. In the Byzantine world, Saint Basil the Great (c. 330–379) developed rules that would shape Eastern monastic life for centuries.
Benedictines
The Benedictine Order, founded by St. Benedict in the sixth century, became the most widespread form of monasticism in Western Europe. Known as the Black Monks because of their dark robes, they followed a structured life of prayer, study, and labour. The Rule of St. Benedict provided a practical guide to monastic discipline. Benedictine monasteries played an important role in preserving learning and producing manuscripts, and several medieval popes came from their ranks.
Cluniacs
By the 10th century, some Benedictines sought stricter spiritual focus. In 910, the Abbey of Cluny was established in France as a reform movement within the Benedictine tradition. The Cluniacs emphasised elaborate liturgy, extended periods of prayer, and a rejection of secular interference. Their model was so influential that by the 12th century, nearly 300 monasteries across Europe were affiliated with Cluny and subordinate to its abbot.
Cistercians
Continuing the reform trend, the Cistercian Order was founded in 1098 at Citeaux in France. It promoted a return to the original austerity of Benedictine life, valuing manual labour, self-sufficiency, and simplicity. Cistercian monks wore undyed white habits, earning them the nickname White Monks. Their most famous figure was Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153), a powerful preacher and advisor to kings and popes. By the 15th century, there were over 750 Cistercian monasteries across Europe.
Carthusians
Founded in 1084 in what is now France, the Carthusians followed an especially strict and solitary lifestyle. Monks lived in private cells, gathered only occasionally for communal worship, and dedicated themselves to contemplation and prayer. Despite their isolation, the order grew slowly but steadily, reaching around 200 houses by the late Middle Ages.
Premonstratensians
This order was founded in 1120 by St. Norbert of Xanten in France. Also known as the White Canons, the Premonstratensians combined a monastic life of contemplation with the active duties of preaching, pastoral care, and missionary work. They were particularly involved in converting pagan communities in Eastern Europe.
Trinitarians
The Trinitarian Order, founded in the late 12th century in the Iberian Peninsula, was dedicated to the redemption of Christian captives from Muslim lands. While less focused on monastic isolation, their work aligned with Christian ideals of charity and sacrifice.
Lay Religious Movements
Not all religious life in the Middle Ages took place within formal monastic orders. Several movements developed for laypeople, particularly women, who sought spiritual lives outside the convent walls.
Beguines
Beguines were women who lived in religious communities without taking formal vows. Emerging in the 12th century in the Low Countries and Germany, they focused on charity, prayer, and simple living. Some were known for their mystical writings, and others faced accusations of heresy from church authorities.
Beghards
The male counterpart to the Beguines, Beghards formed similar lay communities focused on piety and service. Like the Beguines, they did not take lifelong vows and were especially active in urban centres in the Low Countries and France.
Mendicant Orders
Beginning in the 13th century, new religious orders rejected the cloistered life and instead moved among the people. These mendicant orders relied on alms and emphasised preaching, poverty, and education.
Franciscans
Founded in 1209 by Francis of Assisi, the Franciscans — also called the Grey Friars or Friars Minor — followed a radical ideal of poverty and humility. They travelled on foot, preached to the poor, and avoided property ownership. Their order grew rapidly and became one of the most influential religious movements of the medieval period.
Dominicans
Founded by St. Dominic in 1216, the Dominicans — or Black Friars — were likewise committed to poverty and preaching. However, they placed a stronger emphasis on education and intellectual training. Many Dominicans taught at universities and became prominent figures in medieval theology and philosophy.
Military Orders
Some monastic orders combined religious devotion with military service, especially during the Crusades. These military orders took vows like monks but also bore arms in defence of Christian territories and pilgrims.
Hospitallers
Also known as the Knights of St. John, the Hospitallers began in the 11th century as a charitable group aiding pilgrims and the sick in Jerusalem. Over time, they evolved into a powerful military force. By the end of the Middle Ages, they were based on the island of Malta and played a key role in resisting Ottoman expansion.
Templars
Founded in 1119, the Knights Templar were created to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land. They became immensely wealthy and powerful, drawing the suspicion of rulers. In 1307, King Philip IV of France arrested Templar leaders, and in 1312 the Pope formally suppressed the order. Several Templars were executed for heresy.
Teutonic Knights
Formed in 1190 during the Third Crusade, the Teutonic Order was a German military order that soon shifted its focus from the Holy Land to Eastern Europe. From the 13th to 15th centuries, they established a powerful state along the Baltic Sea and played a major role in Christianising the region.
Other Orders
Many other smaller monastic groups contributed to medieval religious life. The Carmelites (originally hermits from Mount Carmel), the Augustinians (who followed the Rule of St. Augustine), and the Poor Clares (the female branch of the Franciscans) were all important in various regions and contexts, reflecting the diversity of monastic expression across the Middle Ages.
If you want to know more about monks, nuns and medieval monasticism, please see:
Fun Facts About Monks
5 Surprising Rules for Medieval Monks
Leadership Lessons from a Medieval Abbot
Daily Life in a Medieval Monastery
Top Image – Benedictine monks chanting, from British Library MS Additional 39636
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