Across medieval Europe, North Africa, and Asia, once-thriving cities crumbled into silence. War, trade disruption, religious upheaval, and natural disasters all played a part in reshaping the urban world of the Middle Ages. In this article, we explore 10 cities that fell into ruin between the years 500 and 1500. These were not minor settlements, but centres of power, trade, and culture—some with tens of thousands of inhabitants. Their ruins now stand as stark reminders of how even the greatest cities can vanish.
1. Antioch (Turkey)
Drawing of Antioch by Louis-François Cassas in 1800
Founded in the 4th century BCE and later becoming one of the great cities of the Roman and Byzantine empires, Antioch was once a political, cultural, and religious capital. By the early medieval period, it was home to perhaps 300,000 people and served as a key centre of Christianity in the eastern Mediterranean. Its walls were famed for their scale, and the city thrived as a hub connecting Europe and the Middle East.
But Antioch’s fortunes declined sharply after a series of disasters, especially an earthquake that struck in 526. Following this, the city would find itself along the frontliens of the Byzantine-Arab wars that began in the 7th century and was conquered several times. The famous siege of Antioch in 1097-8 during the First Crusade left it in the Crusaders’ hands for the next couple of centuries, but in 1268 the Mamluks under Baybars decided that the city would be completely destroyed. After a short siege, an estimated 17,000 persons were killed and 100,000 taken prisoner, with the buildings torn down. By the end of the Middle Ages, there was only 300 inhabitants left among its ruins.
2. Old Sarum (England)
Aerial photograph of Old Sarum, by MARKEDWARDS / Wikimedia Commons
Old Sarum, located in southern England, was a significant Iron Age hillfort that became a Roman settlement and later a Saxon and Norman stronghold. It housed a cathedral and royal palace and served as a hub of administration and defence. At its height in the 12th century, it may have supported a population of several hundred to over a thousand, focused around a royal castle and ecclesiastical complex.
However, Old Sarum’s exposed position made it harsh and windy, and tensions between the clergy and military authorities caused ongoing friction. In 1226, the bishop moved the cathedral to a new site down the hill—modern Salisbury. The town and population followed, leaving Old Sarum abandoned. Though it retained symbolic importance for centuries, it became little more than a ruin, preserved today as a heritage site.
3. Hedeby (Germany)
Reconstruction of Hedeby – photo by Matthias Süßen / Wikimedia Commons
Hedeby was a major Viking Age trading centre located near the modern Danish-German border. In the 10th century, it was one of the largest towns in Scandinavia, with an estimated population of 1,500 to 2,000, and possibly more. It served as a key node between the Baltic and North Seas and featured fortifications, workshops, and harbours.
But Hedeby was vulnerable. It was attacked and burned by King Harald Hardrada of Norway in 1050. Though partially rebuilt, sixteen years later it was again sacked and burned, this time by the West Slavs. After this, the town was abandoned and its population shifted to nearby Schleswig. The site remained buried until rediscovered by archaeologists, and today the site hosts a museum and a reconstructed village.
4. Butrint (Albania)
The Basilica at Butrint – photo by Paul Lakin / Wikimedia Commons
Located near the Straits of Corfu, Butrint was a vibrant city in antiquity, later becoming a key Byzantine religious centre. Its population in late antiquity may have approached 10,000. With its impressive city walls, baptistery, and theatre, Butrint reflected the layered histories of Greek, Roman, and Christian rule. The city also held strategic importance due to its proximity to maritime trade routes.
But Butrint’s fortunes waned in the Middle Ages. Repeated earthquakes, marshy conditions, and shifting political boundaries contributed to its decline. Though it remained inhabited into the 14th century, it gradually became depopulated. With trade routes changing and the region’s political centres moving elsewhere, Butrint was eventually abandoned, leaving behind remarkably preserved ruins that were later rediscovered by 20th-century archaeologists.
5. Ani (Turkey, near the Armenian border)
Walking towards the ruins of Ani – photo by Ben Men Lyun / Wikimedia Commons
Ani, the once-glorious capital of the medieval Armenian Bagratid Kingdom, flourished in the 10th and 11th centuries. Known as the “City of 1,001 Churches,” it boasted a population of perhaps 100,000 during its peak and rivalled Constantinople and Baghdad in grandeur. Strategically located on trade routes between Byzantium and Persia, Ani was a cultural and religious beacon.
But Ani’s rise was matched by its dramatic fall. Seljuk invasions, an earthquake in 1319, and shifting political control weakened the city. The Mongols captured it in the 13th century, and later domination by the Timurids and Ottomans eroded its stability. Trade routes shifted, and the surrounding region depopulated. By the 17th century, Ani was completely abandoned, its skyline of churches left to crumble on the high plains.
6. Dorestad (Netherlands)
Fibula of ca 800 A.D. found in a well at Dorestad/Wijk bij Duurstede, now in the Rijksmuseum v. Oudheden, Leiden – Wikimedia Commons
Located near modern-day Wijk bij Duurstede, Dorestad was a thriving Carolingian trade hub in the 8th and 9th centuries. It was one of the most important commercial centres in northern Europe, with its population likely reaching several thousand. Dorestad’s location at the confluence of key rivers made it ideal for shipping goods across the Frankish empire and beyond.
Yet its wealth made it a target. From the 830s, Viking raids repeatedly devastated the town. Though it was rebuilt multiple times, ongoing instability and river course changes eventually doomed it. By the end of the 9th century, Dorestad had largely vanished from the historical record. Unlike other trade centres that adapted, Dorestad never regained its commercial prominence.
7. Leptis Magna (Libya)
Arch of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna – photo by NH53 / Wikimedia Commons
Leptis Magna, a major Roman city on the North African coast, reached its peak in the 2nd century CE under Emperor Septimius Severus, who was born there. It boasted monumental architecture, including a grand basilica, amphitheatre, and harbour, and may have housed around 50,000 to 100,000 residents at its height. It was a showcase of Roman imperial power in Africa and a vital trade link across the Mediterranean.
However, by the 6th century the city had declined, weakened by sand encroachment, economic shifts, and invasions by Vandals and later Byzantines. When Arab forces came in 647, the city was only home to about 1000 inhabitants. Its stunning ruins, buried by sand for centuries, were only rediscovered in modern times.
8. Merv (Turkmenistan)
The Great Kyz Kala, a large ruined fortress in Merv. Photo by Peretz Partensky / Flickr
Merv was one of the greatest cities of Central Asia, a Silk Road metropolis with origins dating back millennia. Under the Seljuk Empire in the 11th–12th centuries, it may have had a population of 200,000 to 500,000, making it possibly the largest city in the world at the time. It was a centre of Islamic learning, science, and trade.
Its destruction came swiftly and catastrophically. In 1221, Mongol forces captured Merv and, according to medieval sources, massacred its population—perhaps hundreds of thousands in a single assault. Though some settlement persisted nearby, the city itself never recovered and by the 18th century it was completely abandoned. As one later visitor commented, “In the midst of an absolute wilderness of crumbling brick and clay, the spectacle of walls, towers, ramparts and domes, stretching in bewildering confusion to the horizon, reminds us that we are in the centre of bygone greatness.”
9. Karakorum (Mongolia)
The Erdene Zuu monastery sits on what was once Karakorum – photo by Vidor / Wikimedia Commons
Karakorum was the capital of the Mongol Empire under Ögedei Khan in the early 13th century. Though relatively small by medieval standards—its population may have been between 10,000 and 30,000—it was politically central to one of the largest empires in history. The city housed embassies, artisans from across Eurasia, and a monumental silver tree fountain.
But Karakorum’s prominence was short-lived. Kublai Khan moved the Mongol capital to Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) in the 1260s, leaving Karakorum politically sidelined. In 1388, Ming forces destroyed much of the city during a campaign against the Northern Yuan. Without its imperial function and surrounded by steppe, it faded into ruin. Only archaeological remains mark the spot today.
10. Dunwich (England)
This sign nicely illustrates medieval and present-day Dunwich – photo by Leutha / Wikimedia Commons
Once one of the largest ports in medieval England, Dunwich thrived between the 11th and 13th centuries, with a population estimated at 3,000 to 5,000. It had multiple churches, a monastery, and a significant role in trade across the North Sea. Its importance was matched by its vulnerability: the town sat on a fragile coastline.
Beginning in the late 13th century, severe storms and coastal erosion began to eat away at Dunwich. A great storm in 1286 submerged much of the harbour, and others followed. Over the next few centuries, the sea consumed street after street, church after church. By the 15th century, most of the original town just off the coastline, in waters 3m to 10m deep.
As Professor David Sear comments, “Our coastlines have always been changing, and communities have struggled to live with this change. Dunwich reminds us that it is not only the big storms and their frequency—coming one after another, that drives erosion and flooding, but also the social and economic decisions communities make at the coast. In the end, with the harbour silting up, the town partly destroyed, and falling market incomes, many people simply gave up on Dunwich.”
These ruined cities remind us that even the mightiest urban centres can vanish, undone by war, natural disaster, or the slow erosion of political and economic change. Once bustling with merchants, artisans, scholars, and soldiers, they now stand as silent witnesses to a vanished world. Their remains offer invaluable insight into medieval life, architecture, and power structures, revealing how societies rose, adapted, and sometimes failed. In studying their stories, we gain not only a deeper understanding of the past but also a cautionary perspective on the fragility of human achievement.
Top Image: The medieval ruins of Ani – photo by Panegyrics of Granovetter / Flickr
Across medieval Europe, North Africa, and Asia, once-thriving cities crumbled into silence. War, trade disruption, religious upheaval, and natural disasters all played a part in reshaping the urban world of the Middle Ages. In this article, we explore 10 cities that fell into ruin between the years 500 and 1500. These were not minor settlements, but centres of power, trade, and culture—some with tens of thousands of inhabitants. Their ruins now stand as stark reminders of how even the greatest cities can vanish.
1. Antioch (Turkey)
Founded in the 4th century BCE and later becoming one of the great cities of the Roman and Byzantine empires, Antioch was once a political, cultural, and religious capital. By the early medieval period, it was home to perhaps 300,000 people and served as a key centre of Christianity in the eastern Mediterranean. Its walls were famed for their scale, and the city thrived as a hub connecting Europe and the Middle East.
But Antioch’s fortunes declined sharply after a series of disasters, especially an earthquake that struck in 526. Following this, the city would find itself along the frontliens of the Byzantine-Arab wars that began in the 7th century and was conquered several times. The famous siege of Antioch in 1097-8 during the First Crusade left it in the Crusaders’ hands for the next couple of centuries, but in 1268 the Mamluks under Baybars decided that the city would be completely destroyed. After a short siege, an estimated 17,000 persons were killed and 100,000 taken prisoner, with the buildings torn down. By the end of the Middle Ages, there was only 300 inhabitants left among its ruins.
2. Old Sarum (England)
Old Sarum, located in southern England, was a significant Iron Age hillfort that became a Roman settlement and later a Saxon and Norman stronghold. It housed a cathedral and royal palace and served as a hub of administration and defence. At its height in the 12th century, it may have supported a population of several hundred to over a thousand, focused around a royal castle and ecclesiastical complex.
However, Old Sarum’s exposed position made it harsh and windy, and tensions between the clergy and military authorities caused ongoing friction. In 1226, the bishop moved the cathedral to a new site down the hill—modern Salisbury. The town and population followed, leaving Old Sarum abandoned. Though it retained symbolic importance for centuries, it became little more than a ruin, preserved today as a heritage site.
3. Hedeby (Germany)
Hedeby was a major Viking Age trading centre located near the modern Danish-German border. In the 10th century, it was one of the largest towns in Scandinavia, with an estimated population of 1,500 to 2,000, and possibly more. It served as a key node between the Baltic and North Seas and featured fortifications, workshops, and harbours.
But Hedeby was vulnerable. It was attacked and burned by King Harald Hardrada of Norway in 1050. Though partially rebuilt, sixteen years later it was again sacked and burned, this time by the West Slavs. After this, the town was abandoned and its population shifted to nearby Schleswig. The site remained buried until rediscovered by archaeologists, and today the site hosts a museum and a reconstructed village.
4. Butrint (Albania)
Located near the Straits of Corfu, Butrint was a vibrant city in antiquity, later becoming a key Byzantine religious centre. Its population in late antiquity may have approached 10,000. With its impressive city walls, baptistery, and theatre, Butrint reflected the layered histories of Greek, Roman, and Christian rule. The city also held strategic importance due to its proximity to maritime trade routes.
But Butrint’s fortunes waned in the Middle Ages. Repeated earthquakes, marshy conditions, and shifting political boundaries contributed to its decline. Though it remained inhabited into the 14th century, it gradually became depopulated. With trade routes changing and the region’s political centres moving elsewhere, Butrint was eventually abandoned, leaving behind remarkably preserved ruins that were later rediscovered by 20th-century archaeologists.
5. Ani (Turkey, near the Armenian border)
Ani, the once-glorious capital of the medieval Armenian Bagratid Kingdom, flourished in the 10th and 11th centuries. Known as the “City of 1,001 Churches,” it boasted a population of perhaps 100,000 during its peak and rivalled Constantinople and Baghdad in grandeur. Strategically located on trade routes between Byzantium and Persia, Ani was a cultural and religious beacon.
But Ani’s rise was matched by its dramatic fall. Seljuk invasions, an earthquake in 1319, and shifting political control weakened the city. The Mongols captured it in the 13th century, and later domination by the Timurids and Ottomans eroded its stability. Trade routes shifted, and the surrounding region depopulated. By the 17th century, Ani was completely abandoned, its skyline of churches left to crumble on the high plains.
6. Dorestad (Netherlands)
Located near modern-day Wijk bij Duurstede, Dorestad was a thriving Carolingian trade hub in the 8th and 9th centuries. It was one of the most important commercial centres in northern Europe, with its population likely reaching several thousand. Dorestad’s location at the confluence of key rivers made it ideal for shipping goods across the Frankish empire and beyond.
Yet its wealth made it a target. From the 830s, Viking raids repeatedly devastated the town. Though it was rebuilt multiple times, ongoing instability and river course changes eventually doomed it. By the end of the 9th century, Dorestad had largely vanished from the historical record. Unlike other trade centres that adapted, Dorestad never regained its commercial prominence.
7. Leptis Magna (Libya)
Leptis Magna, a major Roman city on the North African coast, reached its peak in the 2nd century CE under Emperor Septimius Severus, who was born there. It boasted monumental architecture, including a grand basilica, amphitheatre, and harbour, and may have housed around 50,000 to 100,000 residents at its height. It was a showcase of Roman imperial power in Africa and a vital trade link across the Mediterranean.
However, by the 6th century the city had declined, weakened by sand encroachment, economic shifts, and invasions by Vandals and later Byzantines. When Arab forces came in 647, the city was only home to about 1000 inhabitants. Its stunning ruins, buried by sand for centuries, were only rediscovered in modern times.
8. Merv (Turkmenistan)
Merv was one of the greatest cities of Central Asia, a Silk Road metropolis with origins dating back millennia. Under the Seljuk Empire in the 11th–12th centuries, it may have had a population of 200,000 to 500,000, making it possibly the largest city in the world at the time. It was a centre of Islamic learning, science, and trade.
Its destruction came swiftly and catastrophically. In 1221, Mongol forces captured Merv and, according to medieval sources, massacred its population—perhaps hundreds of thousands in a single assault. Though some settlement persisted nearby, the city itself never recovered and by the 18th century it was completely abandoned. As one later visitor commented, “In the midst of an absolute wilderness of crumbling brick and clay, the spectacle of walls, towers, ramparts and domes, stretching in bewildering confusion to the horizon, reminds us that we are in the centre of bygone greatness.”
9. Karakorum (Mongolia)
Karakorum was the capital of the Mongol Empire under Ögedei Khan in the early 13th century. Though relatively small by medieval standards—its population may have been between 10,000 and 30,000—it was politically central to one of the largest empires in history. The city housed embassies, artisans from across Eurasia, and a monumental silver tree fountain.
But Karakorum’s prominence was short-lived. Kublai Khan moved the Mongol capital to Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) in the 1260s, leaving Karakorum politically sidelined. In 1388, Ming forces destroyed much of the city during a campaign against the Northern Yuan. Without its imperial function and surrounded by steppe, it faded into ruin. Only archaeological remains mark the spot today.
10. Dunwich (England)
Once one of the largest ports in medieval England, Dunwich thrived between the 11th and 13th centuries, with a population estimated at 3,000 to 5,000. It had multiple churches, a monastery, and a significant role in trade across the North Sea. Its importance was matched by its vulnerability: the town sat on a fragile coastline.
Beginning in the late 13th century, severe storms and coastal erosion began to eat away at Dunwich. A great storm in 1286 submerged much of the harbour, and others followed. Over the next few centuries, the sea consumed street after street, church after church. By the 15th century, most of the original town just off the coastline, in waters 3m to 10m deep.
As Professor David Sear comments, “Our coastlines have always been changing, and communities have struggled to live with this change. Dunwich reminds us that it is not only the big storms and their frequency—coming one after another, that drives erosion and flooding, but also the social and economic decisions communities make at the coast. In the end, with the harbour silting up, the town partly destroyed, and falling market incomes, many people simply gave up on Dunwich.”
These ruined cities remind us that even the mightiest urban centres can vanish, undone by war, natural disaster, or the slow erosion of political and economic change. Once bustling with merchants, artisans, scholars, and soldiers, they now stand as silent witnesses to a vanished world. Their remains offer invaluable insight into medieval life, architecture, and power structures, revealing how societies rose, adapted, and sometimes failed. In studying their stories, we gain not only a deeper understanding of the past but also a cautionary perspective on the fragility of human achievement.
Top Image: The medieval ruins of Ani – photo by Panegyrics of Granovetter / Flickr
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