A landmine search on a mountain in South Korea unexpectedly uncovered a small bronze firearm that could be more than 600 years old. After three years of investigation, researchers have identified the Hwangja Hwatong as the oldest surviving gunpowder weapon known from Korea.
The Hwangja Hwatong (黃字火筒) was discovered by chance in November 2023 on Geumseongsan Mountain in Naju, South Korea. The find was made during a mine-detection sweep ahead of the construction of a hiking trail through an area where unexploded landmines were suspected. Researchers at the Naju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage have since spent three years studying the weapon, using its inscriptions, construction and metal composition to determine its age and authenticity.
The firearm measures just 23.75 centimetres long, with a bore diameter of 1.66 centimetres, and weighs 1,032 grams. A hwatong, or “fire tube,” used gunpowder to launch arrows or other projectiles and offered greater range and destructive power than the bow.
Researchers say the newly studied example is the earliest surviving gunpowder weapon in Korea. Physical examples from the transitional period between the late Goryeo and early Joseon dynasties are particularly rare.
An inscription identifies the weapon and its makers
The 27-character inscription engraved on the shaft socket of the Hwangja Hwatong. Photo courtesy Korea Heritage Service
One of the most important features of the Hwangja Hwatong is an inscription of 28 characters engraved into the weapon. Twenty-seven appear in six columns on the socket into which a wooden handle would have been fitted, while another character is engraved on the muzzle.
The main inscription reads:
“In the twelfth month of the Jeongsa year, the Hwangja Hwatong was made. Its weight is one geun and 14 nyang. The supervisor was Noksa An Hyu-bo, and the craftsman was Seok.”
The inscription therefore provides researchers with an unusual amount of information about the weapon, including its name and weight, when it was manufactured, the official who supervised its production and the craftsman who made it.
The 27-character inscription engraved on the shaft socket of the Hwangja Hwatong, identifying its date of manufacture, name, weight, supervising official and craftsman. Courtesy Korea Heritage Service.
The additional character on the muzzle is 八, meaning “eight.” Researchers believe it may have served as a production or inventory number.
Even the weapon’s name provides clues about how arms were organised. Hwangja (黃字), or “Yellow Character,” refers to a classification system based on the order of characters in the Thousand Character Classic, a text widely used across East Asia.
The inscription also points to state oversight of weapons production. The title noksa (錄事) referred to an administrative official, and historical records show officials holding this position were connected with weapons manufacture at the Military Equipment Directorate during the late Goryeo period. Similar evidence survives from the Joseon period.
1377 or 1437?
Conjectural reconstruction of a soldier from the late Goryeo to early Joseon period carrying a Hwangja Hwatong. AI-generated image. Image courtesy Korea Heritage Service.
The inscription does not, however, provide researchers with an unambiguous year. It states that the weapon was made during a Jeongsa (丁巳) year, part of the traditional 60-year calendrical cycle.
Researchers have narrowed the possibilities to 1377 or 1437. The earlier date is particularly significant in the history of Korean gunpowder weapons. In 1377, during the reign of King U of Goryeo, the military official and weapons developer Choe Museon (崔茂宣) successfully advocated for the establishment of the Hwatong Dogam, or Directorate of Gunpowder Weapons. This marked the beginning of gunpowder-weapons production organised by the Korean state.
The alternative date of 1437 falls during the reign of King Sejong, when Korean firearms were undergoing significant improvements, and several years before new types of firearms were standardised in 1445.
Reconstruction showing how the Hwangja Hwatong is believed to have fired an arrow-like projectile. Image courtesy Korea Heritage Service.
Researchers say there is currently not enough comparative material to determine which date is correct. Whichever proves to be the case, they conclude that the Hwangja Hwatong is the earliest gunpowder weapon yet discovered or excavated in Korea.
The weapon’s construction may provide another clue. Its powder chamber has a rounded interior, a feature associated with an early type of firearm in which the gunpowder and projectile were placed within a single tube. Later weapons improved during Sejong’s reign employed a wooden plug called a gyeokmok (擊木), which helped transfer the explosive force of the gunpowder to the projectile.
The absence of this later design feature suggests that the Hwangja Hwatong represents an earlier stage in the development of Korean firearms.
Scientific testing supports its authenticity
Hard X-ray image of the Hwangja Hwatong, revealing the weapon’s internal structure. Photo courtesy Korea Heritage Service
Researchers also examined the metal from which the firearm was made. Analysis revealed that the Hwangja Hwatong was cast from bronze composed principally of copper, tin and lead. Its tin content was kept below 10 per cent by weight, a composition that researchers say provided both strength and ductility, reducing the danger that the weapon would break under the force of an explosion. The composition corresponds with that of traditional Korean gunpowder weapons.
Microscopic analysis also detected impurities including sulphur, silicon and silver left behind during the refining process. Researchers say these traces reflect the limitations of historical metal-refining techniques and provide additional evidence that the firearm was produced using traditional bronze-casting methods rather than being a modern reproduction.
The Hwangja Hwatong will now go on public display at the National Palace Museum of Korea in Seoul as part of a special exhibition of newly discovered artefacts. The exhibition runs from September 23 to November 22, presenting the weapon alongside findings from its investigation and scientific analysis.
Top Image: The Hwangja Hwatong, identified as the oldest surviving gunpowder weapon in Korea. Photo courtesy Korea Heritage Service
A landmine search on a mountain in South Korea unexpectedly uncovered a small bronze firearm that could be more than 600 years old. After three years of investigation, researchers have identified the Hwangja Hwatong as the oldest surviving gunpowder weapon known from Korea.
The Hwangja Hwatong (黃字火筒) was discovered by chance in November 2023 on Geumseongsan Mountain in Naju, South Korea. The find was made during a mine-detection sweep ahead of the construction of a hiking trail through an area where unexploded landmines were suspected. Researchers at the Naju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage have since spent three years studying the weapon, using its inscriptions, construction and metal composition to determine its age and authenticity.
The firearm measures just 23.75 centimetres long, with a bore diameter of 1.66 centimetres, and weighs 1,032 grams. A hwatong, or “fire tube,” used gunpowder to launch arrows or other projectiles and offered greater range and destructive power than the bow.
Researchers say the newly studied example is the earliest surviving gunpowder weapon in Korea. Physical examples from the transitional period between the late Goryeo and early Joseon dynasties are particularly rare.
An inscription identifies the weapon and its makers
One of the most important features of the Hwangja Hwatong is an inscription of 28 characters engraved into the weapon. Twenty-seven appear in six columns on the socket into which a wooden handle would have been fitted, while another character is engraved on the muzzle.
The main inscription reads:
“In the twelfth month of the Jeongsa year, the Hwangja Hwatong was made. Its weight is one geun and 14 nyang. The supervisor was Noksa An Hyu-bo, and the craftsman was Seok.”
The inscription therefore provides researchers with an unusual amount of information about the weapon, including its name and weight, when it was manufactured, the official who supervised its production and the craftsman who made it.
The additional character on the muzzle is 八, meaning “eight.” Researchers believe it may have served as a production or inventory number.
Even the weapon’s name provides clues about how arms were organised. Hwangja (黃字), or “Yellow Character,” refers to a classification system based on the order of characters in the Thousand Character Classic, a text widely used across East Asia.
The inscription also points to state oversight of weapons production. The title noksa (錄事) referred to an administrative official, and historical records show officials holding this position were connected with weapons manufacture at the Military Equipment Directorate during the late Goryeo period. Similar evidence survives from the Joseon period.
1377 or 1437?
The inscription does not, however, provide researchers with an unambiguous year. It states that the weapon was made during a Jeongsa (丁巳) year, part of the traditional 60-year calendrical cycle.
Researchers have narrowed the possibilities to 1377 or 1437. The earlier date is particularly significant in the history of Korean gunpowder weapons. In 1377, during the reign of King U of Goryeo, the military official and weapons developer Choe Museon (崔茂宣) successfully advocated for the establishment of the Hwatong Dogam, or Directorate of Gunpowder Weapons. This marked the beginning of gunpowder-weapons production organised by the Korean state.
The alternative date of 1437 falls during the reign of King Sejong, when Korean firearms were undergoing significant improvements, and several years before new types of firearms were standardised in 1445.
Researchers say there is currently not enough comparative material to determine which date is correct. Whichever proves to be the case, they conclude that the Hwangja Hwatong is the earliest gunpowder weapon yet discovered or excavated in Korea.
The weapon’s construction may provide another clue. Its powder chamber has a rounded interior, a feature associated with an early type of firearm in which the gunpowder and projectile were placed within a single tube. Later weapons improved during Sejong’s reign employed a wooden plug called a gyeokmok (擊木), which helped transfer the explosive force of the gunpowder to the projectile.
The absence of this later design feature suggests that the Hwangja Hwatong represents an earlier stage in the development of Korean firearms.
Scientific testing supports its authenticity
Researchers also examined the metal from which the firearm was made. Analysis revealed that the Hwangja Hwatong was cast from bronze composed principally of copper, tin and lead. Its tin content was kept below 10 per cent by weight, a composition that researchers say provided both strength and ductility, reducing the danger that the weapon would break under the force of an explosion. The composition corresponds with that of traditional Korean gunpowder weapons.
Microscopic analysis also detected impurities including sulphur, silicon and silver left behind during the refining process. Researchers say these traces reflect the limitations of historical metal-refining techniques and provide additional evidence that the firearm was produced using traditional bronze-casting methods rather than being a modern reproduction.
The Hwangja Hwatong will now go on public display at the National Palace Museum of Korea in Seoul as part of a special exhibition of newly discovered artefacts. The exhibition runs from September 23 to November 22, presenting the weapon alongside findings from its investigation and scientific analysis.
Top Image: The Hwangja Hwatong, identified as the oldest surviving gunpowder weapon in Korea. Photo courtesy Korea Heritage Service
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