A previously unknown Carolingian theological work apparently written at the request of Charlemagne has been identified in a sixteenth-century manuscript in Vienna. The text also suggests that the emperor was interested in using biblical arguments to encourage the conversion of Muslims to Christianity.
The findings have been published in in the journal Early Medieval Europe. In his article, “A newly discovered Carolingian text: Candidus’ Liber testimoniorum veteris testamenti, written for Charlemagne,” Lukas J. Dorfbauer details a work about the Old Testament, which he belives was written by Candidus Wizo, an Anglo-Saxon scholar who was active at Charlemagne’s court.
Dorfbauer dates the work to around 801–805, shortly after Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome. The work survives in Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, cod. 11844, a collection of texts copied between 1554 and 1556 for the Habsburg diplomat and book collector Kaspar von Nidbruck.
Finding Christ in the Old Testament
Jesus depicted in the Gellone Sacramentary from the late 8th century – BNF MS Latin 12048. fol. 143v
The Liber testimoniorum veteris testamenti examines passages from the first seven books of the Bible. His goal was to demonstrate that Christ, the Holy Spirit and the Christian Trinity had already been announced and were present in the Old Testament. Rather than simply collecting biblical passages, Candidus explains how each could be understood as referring to Christ or the Trinity.
The length of these discussions varies considerably, from only a few lines to more than 100 lines in Dorfbauer’s provisional edition. The surviving text ends by identifying itself as the “first book,” indicating that it may once have been part of a longer work. No additional book has yet been identified.
Dorfbauer argues that the work differs from much early Carolingian biblical scholarship. Instead of assembling extended quotations from Church Fathers, its author develops earlier theological ideas in his own words. He appears to have been particularly influenced by Augustine, but he rarely quotes earlier writers directly or identifies them by name.
Charlemagne and the “Agarenes”
A dedicatory letter at the beginning of the work identifies its author as Candidus and addresses a ruler named Carolus. It states that Carolus had ordered Candidus to gather evidence from the Old Testament showing that the Son of God had already been foretold.
The letter also recalls the ruler speaking repeatedly about the “Agarenes,” a term commonly used by early medieval Christian writers for Muslims. According to Candidus, the emperor hoped that at least some of them might be brought to Christian salvation.
This does not necessarily mean that Charlemagne was preparing an organised campaign to convert Muslims. There is no independent evidence that the emperor attempted such a project, and the language might partly have been intended to praise him as a Christian ruler concerned with the salvation of all peoples.
The treatise also reveals little detailed knowledge of Islam. Its arguments resemble those traditionally used by Christian writers against Jews, who accepted the Old Testament but rejected Christian interpretations of it. Candidus may have possessed only a limited understanding of Muslim beliefs and viewed Islam through ideas previously associated with Judaism.
Dorfbauer therefore cautions that this text “does not really read like a work intended for mission.” Instead, it was probably composed primarily for educated Christian readers, reinforcing their beliefs rather than directly addressing prospective converts.
Identifying Candidus and Charlemagne
A ninth-century copy of Candidus’ other writings – BSB Clm 6389
Dorfbauer identifies Candidus as Candidus Wizo, who was probably born in England and came to the European continent around 795. He acted as a messenger between Alcuin and Charlemagne and travelled to Aachen, Tours, Salzburg and Rome. Several theological and philosophical texts have been attributed to him.
The newly discovered work shares important characteristics with Candidus’s recognised writings, including its language, philosophical approach, expressions of authorial modesty and interest in the Trinity.
Dorfbauer also considers whether the names might refer instead to the sixteenth-century theologian Nikolaus Blanckaert, who sometimes called himself Alexander Candidus, and Emperor Charles V. He ultimately rejects this possibility, citing major differences in language, style and the geopolitics of the day.
Some historians, however, have questioned whether the text really dates from the early ninth century. Matthew Gabriele suggested on Bluesky that it might be a twelfth- or thirteenth-century forgery. Others have reacted enthusiastically to the discovery, with Sam Ottewill-Soulsby writing, “this is a really fascinating piece that is going to change the way we think about the Carolingians and Islam.”
Lukas J. Dorfbauer is a scholar at the the University of Salzburg and works with Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum project. His article, “A newly discovered Carolingian text: Candidus’ Liber testimoniorum veteris testamenti, written for Charlemagne,” is published in Early Medieval Europe. Click here to read it.
Did Charlemagne consider converting Muslims in al-Andalus to Christianity?
New evidence uncovered by Lukas Dorfbauer, just published on Early View, suggests he might have – contrary to previous assumptions. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/…
A previously unknown Carolingian theological work apparently written at the request of Charlemagne has been identified in a sixteenth-century manuscript in Vienna. The text also suggests that the emperor was interested in using biblical arguments to encourage the conversion of Muslims to Christianity.
The findings have been published in in the journal Early Medieval Europe. In his article, “A newly discovered Carolingian text: Candidus’ Liber testimoniorum veteris testamenti, written for Charlemagne,” Lukas J. Dorfbauer details a work about the Old Testament, which he belives was written by Candidus Wizo, an Anglo-Saxon scholar who was active at Charlemagne’s court.
Dorfbauer dates the work to around 801–805, shortly after Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome. The work survives in Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, cod. 11844, a collection of texts copied between 1554 and 1556 for the Habsburg diplomat and book collector Kaspar von Nidbruck.
Finding Christ in the Old Testament
The Liber testimoniorum veteris testamenti examines passages from the first seven books of the Bible. His goal was to demonstrate that Christ, the Holy Spirit and the Christian Trinity had already been announced and were present in the Old Testament. Rather than simply collecting biblical passages, Candidus explains how each could be understood as referring to Christ or the Trinity.
The length of these discussions varies considerably, from only a few lines to more than 100 lines in Dorfbauer’s provisional edition. The surviving text ends by identifying itself as the “first book,” indicating that it may once have been part of a longer work. No additional book has yet been identified.
Dorfbauer argues that the work differs from much early Carolingian biblical scholarship. Instead of assembling extended quotations from Church Fathers, its author develops earlier theological ideas in his own words. He appears to have been particularly influenced by Augustine, but he rarely quotes earlier writers directly or identifies them by name.
Charlemagne and the “Agarenes”
A dedicatory letter at the beginning of the work identifies its author as Candidus and addresses a ruler named Carolus. It states that Carolus had ordered Candidus to gather evidence from the Old Testament showing that the Son of God had already been foretold.
The letter also recalls the ruler speaking repeatedly about the “Agarenes,” a term commonly used by early medieval Christian writers for Muslims. According to Candidus, the emperor hoped that at least some of them might be brought to Christian salvation.
This does not necessarily mean that Charlemagne was preparing an organised campaign to convert Muslims. There is no independent evidence that the emperor attempted such a project, and the language might partly have been intended to praise him as a Christian ruler concerned with the salvation of all peoples.
The treatise also reveals little detailed knowledge of Islam. Its arguments resemble those traditionally used by Christian writers against Jews, who accepted the Old Testament but rejected Christian interpretations of it. Candidus may have possessed only a limited understanding of Muslim beliefs and viewed Islam through ideas previously associated with Judaism.
Dorfbauer therefore cautions that this text “does not really read like a work intended for mission.” Instead, it was probably composed primarily for educated Christian readers, reinforcing their beliefs rather than directly addressing prospective converts.
Identifying Candidus and Charlemagne
Dorfbauer identifies Candidus as Candidus Wizo, who was probably born in England and came to the European continent around 795. He acted as a messenger between Alcuin and Charlemagne and travelled to Aachen, Tours, Salzburg and Rome. Several theological and philosophical texts have been attributed to him.
The newly discovered work shares important characteristics with Candidus’s recognised writings, including its language, philosophical approach, expressions of authorial modesty and interest in the Trinity.
Dorfbauer also considers whether the names might refer instead to the sixteenth-century theologian Nikolaus Blanckaert, who sometimes called himself Alexander Candidus, and Emperor Charles V. He ultimately rejects this possibility, citing major differences in language, style and the geopolitics of the day.
Some historians, however, have questioned whether the text really dates from the early ninth century. Matthew Gabriele suggested on Bluesky that it might be a twelfth- or thirteenth-century forgery. Others have reacted enthusiastically to the discovery, with Sam Ottewill-Soulsby writing, “this is a really fascinating piece that is going to change the way we think about the Carolingians and Islam.”
Lukas J. Dorfbauer is a scholar at the the University of Salzburg and works with Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum project. His article, “A newly discovered Carolingian text: Candidus’ Liber testimoniorum veteris testamenti, written for Charlemagne,” is published in Early Medieval Europe. Click here to read it.
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